The forgotten group member Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The forgotten group member - Case Study Example For any group to form and establish itself, it must undergo different developmental stages. The first stage is the forming stage. This is the ‘ice-breaking’ stage of the group. This mainly involves membership of the group, as members are accepted into the group.At this stage, members do not know their roles, and mutual trust among them is low, as they attempt to know one another. The second stage is the storming stage. This is the most challenging stage in group formation. In fact, most groups will be stuck at this stage for quite a long period. At this stage, a lot of testing is experienced in the group. The members might test the policies of their group leaders. Members also know what their membership entails, as well as their roles in the group. These might also try to determine their position and relevance in the group power structure. Nonetheless, this is a problematic stage, which requires strong leadership for the group to succeed. The third stage is the norming s tage. This stage is the first where the group will exhibit considerable integration, after the chaotic storming stage. Members will exhibit commitment to the success of the group. Here, members believe to have their roles spelt out clearly, while the question of power in the group is addressed in an organized way, without any emotions involved. The performing stage is fourth, and here, the group is considered mature and functional. Most activity is based on looking for solutions to problems in the group. Generally, communication in the group is effective, and members perform their roles responsibly, without getting in the way of others. The fifth stage is the adjourning stage. Here, the group is considered to have served its purpose successfully, therefore, is disbanded. In this case, Christine’s group is still at the storming stage. This group is chaotic, and the members lack cooperation. They lag behind on the task they were assigned. Mike is stubborn and skips most group m eetings. Although the rest of the group members are potentially competent, they are not dedicated to the group. Members such as Mike are also giving Christine, their leader, a hard time managing the group. If Christine would understand the development stages of a group, she would have utilized the knowledge to push her group forward. She would have understood that her group was at the second stage, therefore, employed relevant strategies, which would minimize the problems at this stage. For instance, she would have enforced rules in her group. These rules were to have disciplinary measures for anyone who failed to adhere to them. This would have been a form of control in the group, as this stage is characterized by emotionality among members, which requires rules to control. Problem Identification The primary problem in this group is unequal group commitment and involvement of group members. This problem will cost the whole group. The secondary problem faced by this group is the que stionable knowledge and skill of individual team members. In this case, from Mike’s behavior, his skill and knowledge is questionable. This problem also affects the whole group. On the other hand, Christine faces a challenge in coordinating the group members. In these cases, one member presents the most problems in the group. Mike is problematic, as he fails to attend most team meetings because of petty excuses. In addition, he fails to complete his role in the team assignment on time, like the other members. In order to have prevented this, Christine ought to have initially considered the aspect of individual membership. For team effectiveness to be guaranteed, leaders have to put the right members on the team. This is with regard to their skills, personal attributes, and those who show interest in group work. Mike does not meet this criterion. Therefore, if Christine had evaluated him prior to granting him membership into the team, she would have known his weaknesses and

Spirometry and Puerto Rican Children Research Proposal

Spirometry and Puerto Rican Children - Research Proposal Example However, for people suffering from asthma, breathing becomes a difficulty, a disease and condition that limits their activities and significantly reduces their quality of life while being exposed to an increasing risk of death (Bartolomei 2008; Ortega et al. 2002). Puerto Rican children in particular and Puerto Ricans in general have the highest prevalence of active asthma and morbidity among Hispanics (Flores 2002). Despite the fact that experience of poverty and other social- and environmental factors such as exposure to higher indoor and outdoor air pollutants, hazardous waste sites, pesticides, lead and mercury are prevalent among other Hispanic sub-groups like Mexicans, Dominicans and Cubans (Flores 2002). In this condition, wherein asthma prevalence continue to increase and asthma burden persists contributing to reduce productivity and missed school days, it becomes urgent to develop programs that will address concerns pertinent to acute attacks and long term care management of asthmatic children. This is essential in order to check the dwindling quality of life not only of the children who are having difficulty in breathing, but also of desperate parents struggling with their children’s disease. As such, this study intends to come up with a paradigm that will address concerns regarding asthma acute attacks and lay down an educational program that is feasible and authentically geared towards responding to the demands of Puerto Rican children with asthma. At the same time, it seeks to bridge the gap in the literature (Flores 2002). Since, it has been observed that Latinos, in general, are not properly represented in clinical studies and... This is essential in order to check the dwindling quality of life not only of the children who are having difficulty in breathing, but also of desperate parents struggling with their children’s disease. As such, this study intends to come up with a paradigm that will address concerns regarding asthma acute attacks and lay down an educational program that is feasible and authentically geared towards responding to the demands of Puerto Rican children with asthma. At the same time, it seeks to bridge the gap in the literature (Flores 2002). Since, it has been observed that Latinos, in general, are not properly represented in clinical studies and that most literatures dealing with Latinos health condition and disparity are homogenous and fails to recognize the diversity of Hispanic groups (Flores 2002). Although, it has been observed that when it comes to asthma issues, there appears to be a segregation of Hispanic groups in the collected data, however, it still fails to identify the definitive social and environmental factors that contribute to the high prevalence of active asthma among Puerto Ricans (Flores 2002).  In this regard, as there is a necessity to come up with programs and policies that will both address the issues of acute asthma attacks and long-term care management of asthma; the research asserts the notion that lung functions measurement, which are integral part of the diagnosis and treatment of asthma, be integrated in the treatment of acute asthma attacks and be incorporated in the education.

Construction of Recombinant DNA in E Coli

Construction of Recombinant DNA in E Coli In 1973 Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer pioneered the use of recombinant DNA technology for cloning and expression of genes in foreign organisms. They cloned DNA from the Salmonella typhimurium streptomycin resistance plasmid RSF1010 into the Escherichia coli plasmid pSC101 and observed tolerance to streptomycin among the transformants (Cohen et al., 1973). The first reported production of a human recombinant protein took place a few years later when the then newly started biotech company Genentech announced that they had managed to express the gene encoding human somatostatin in E. coli (Itakura et al., 1977). The value of the resulting bioactive substance was similar to that of somatostatin extracted from the brains of 500.000 sheep. In 1982 Genentech followed up this success with the product humulin, a recombinant insulin produced in E.coli and the first recombinant biotech drug to be accepted for market by the Food and Drug Administration. Today the production of recombinant prot eins has become a huge global industry with an annual market volume exceeding $50 billion (Schmidt, 2004). At the start of the recombinant protein expression era the bacteria Escherichia coli and Bacillus spp. dominated as hosts for recombinant expression, but the realization that a protein may require a specific host physiology and biochemistry for optimal production stimulated a search for new hosts, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Parallel to this quest, recombinant DNA technology advanced tremendously thereby opening up possibilities for the use of novel organisms. As a consequence, many different expression systems for use in many different hosts are now available, including systems for use in yeasts (Gellissen et al., 2005), filamentous fungi (Nevalainen et al., 2005), insect and animal cell cultures (Wurm, 2004; Kost et al., 2005), gram-positive bacteria like Bacillus (Westers et al., 2004) and Streptomyces (Binnie et al., 1997), and gram-negative bacteria like Escherichia c oli Bacterial expression systems are the preferred choice for production of many prokaryotic and eukaryotic proteins. The reasons for this lie in the cost-effectiveness of bacteria, their well-characterized genetics, and the availability of many different bacterial expression systems. Among the hosts available for recombinant expression, Escherichia coli is in an exceptional position. This stems from the many decades of intense researchon its genetics as well as the broad scope of biotechnological tools available for genetic engineering of this organism. As a host for recombinant expression, E.coli is especially valued because of its rapid growth rate, capacity for continuous fermentation, low media costs and achievable high expression levels (Yin et al., 2007). One consequence of this popularity is that about 80% of all proteins used to solve three-dimensional structures submitted to the protein data bank (PDB) in 2003 were prepared in E.coli (SÃ ¸rensen and Mortensen, 2005) and during 2003 and 2006, nine out of 31 approved therapeutic proteins were produced in E.coli (Walsh, 2006), among them important growth factors, insulins and interferons (Schmidt, 2004). Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) was isolated from the jellyfish Aequorea aequorea in 1962 (Shimomura et al., 1962) where it was found as a companion protein to aequorin, the well-known chemiluminescent protein of the same species. It was noticed that living A. aequorea tissue had an emission spectrum peaking at 508nm and looking green but pure aequorin peaked in the blue range, at 470nm (Tsien, 1998). This then led Shimomuras group to discover GFP and suggest radiation-less energy transfer as the mechanism for exciting the protein. Its structure has been determined to consist of an 11 stranded ÃŽÂ ²-barrel containing the chromophore made up of a single ÃŽÂ ± helix as shown in Figure1. Its use as a tool in molecular biology was not realised until 1992 when Prasher reported the cloning and sequence of GFP (Prasher et al., 1992). Since 1994 GFP has been used as a reporter protein (Chalfie et al., 1994) flagging its own presence and therefore also proteins under the same control, by emitting green light (ÃŽÂ »em = 508 nm) upon excitation with near ultraviolet light (around 395 nm) or blue light (around 470 nm) (Ito et al, 1999). Since then many mutations have been developed looking to improve the emission or to focus it to a single wavelength (Heim et al., 1995) or to change the color of the emitted light itself. Recombinant DNA molecules usually contain a DNA fragment inserted into a bacterial vector. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a specific gene or DNA region of interest is isolated and amplified by DNA polymerase extracted from a heat-tolerant bacteria. PCR finds the DNA region of interest (called the target DNA) by the complementary binding of specific short primers to the ends of that sequence. The long chromosome-size DNA molecules of genomic DNA must be cut into fragments of a much smaller size before they can be inserted into a vector. Most cutting is done with the use of bacterial restriction enzymes. These enzymes cut at specific DNA sequences, called restriction sites, and this property is one of the key features that make restriction enzymes suitable for DNA manipulation. These enzymes are examples of endonucleases that cleave a phosphodiester bond (Anthony, 2012). The key property of some restriction enzymes is that they make sticky ends. The restriction enzyme EcoRI (from E.coli) recognizes the following sequence of six nucleotide pairs in the DNA of any organism: 5-GAATTC-3 3-CTTAAG-5 The enzyme EcoRI makes cuts only between the G and the A nucleotides on each strand of the palindrome (Figure.2). The recombinant DNA molecules are transferred into bacterial cells, and, generally, only one recombinant molecule is taken up by each cell. The recombinant molecule is amplified along with the vector during the division of the bacterial cell. This process results in a clone of identical cells, each containing the recombinant DNA molecule, and so this technique of amplification is called DNA cloning. The next stage is to find the rare clone containing the DNA of interest. Bacterial plasmids (vectors) are small circular DNA molecules that replicate their DNA independent of the bacterial chromosome. The plasmids routinely used as vectors carry a gene for drug resistance and a gene to distinguish plasmids with and without DNA inserts. These drug-resistance genes provide a convenient way to select for bacterial cells transformed by plasmids: those cells still alive after exposure to the drug must carry the plasmid vectors. However, not all the plasmids in these transformed cells will contain DNA inserts. For this reason, it is desirable to be able to identify bacterial colonies with plasmids containing DNA inserts. Such a feature is part of the pUC18 (or pUC19) plasmid vector shown in Figure 2; DNA inserts disrupt a gene (lacZ) in the plasmid that encodes an enzyme (-galactosidase) necessary to cleave a compound added to the agar (X-gal) so that it produces a blue pigment. Thus, the colonies that contain the plasmids with the DNA insert will be white rath er than blue (they cannot cleave X-gal because they do not produce -galactosidase). The following experiment outlines the construction of recombinant protein production in E.coli strain BL21 by using a bacterial plasmid vector pUC18/19 expressing Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) to act as a recombinant protein product with the benefits of being easy to visualise and measure. Materials and Methods Materials: The experiment was carried out using the following materials and Equipments: 2Â µl EcoRI/HindIII cut and cleaned PUC19 vector, 5Â µl EcoRI/HindIII cut and cleaned GFP insert, 2Â µl 10xT4 ligase buffer, 2Â µl T4 ligase(0.5 U ml-1) , and 9Â µl sterile water (H2O) ]to make up to 20Â µl volume[ . 100Â µl of competent BL21 E.coli cells on ice, 42Â °C water bath, Ice bucket with ice, selective media plates (1.5% Luria broth (LB) Agar, 40Â µg mL-1 X-gal, .1 mM IPTG, 50Â µg mL-1 ampicillin), sterile tubes, shaking incubator, Spectrophotometer or similar device to measure optical density of the bacterial cultures, flasks, Microcentrifuge. Methods: It can be divided into three stages: Ligation Reaction stage: in this stage 2Â µl EcoRI/HindIII cut and cleaned PUC19 vector, 5Â µl EcoRI/HindIII cut and cleaned GFP insert, 2Â µl 10xT4 ligase buffer, 2Â µl T4 ligase (0.5 U ml-1) , and 9Â µl sterile water (H2O) are mixed and kept at room temperature for at least 30 minutes. Transformation of ligation into cloning host stage: this stage conducted by deforesting 100Â µl of competent BL21 E.coli cells on ice (with caution do not allow to warm to room temperature), then adding 10Â µl of the ligation reaction from the first stage to BL21 E.coli cells. They are then incubated for up to 30 minutes on ice. Next step, is done by taking out the transformation mixture out of the ice and heated in water bath at 42 Â °C for almost 75 seconds, then followed by return immediately into ice for a minimum of 2 mins. Then the cells were plated out on selective media plates (1.5% Luria broth (LB) Agar, 40Â µg mL-1 X-gal, .1 mM IPTG, 50Â µg mL-1 ampicillin). Lastly, the transformation mixture is incubated at 37 Â °C for 12-18 hours afterdriedd. Picking of colonies for the protein expression stage: 2x5ml LB +50Â µg ml-1 ampicillin in 30ml sterile tubes were prepared, then 1xBlue individual colony and 1x white individual colony selected and inoculated in separate tubes. Then the tubes were incubated with shaking incubator throughout the night at 37Â °C , speed: 220rpm. Subculture and Growth of Recombinant E.coli for Protein expression: At the beginning, 2x60ml sterile Luria-Bertani (LB), in 250ml conical flask were warmed , (1 per inoculums ) at 37 Â °C, Then aseptically the ampicillin was added to a last concentration of 50Â µg ml-1 ampicillin. Next 1 ml of media was removed and was put in a cuvette to act as blank (one blank is enough for both ouh), followed by addition of 600Â µl overnight to calture of each individual colony to separate flask (1:100 inoculum), the flasks were put back to the shaking incubator and incubated at 37Â °C, speed: 200rpm , after that blank spectrophotometer was placed against media at 600nm , after 45 minutes the samples were removed aseptically from flasks, then from every flask 1x 1mL was removed and added to a fresh clean cuvette (take to next step 8) and 1x1ml was added to clean Eppendrof (take to step 9) . The OD600nm of culture in cuvette was Measured and the result of growth curve was recorded (once the cul ture has reached an OD 600nm of 0.5, IPTG was added to final concentration 1Mm stock solution. Then samples were spun down in the Eeppendrof tube at max speed in Microcentrifuge for 5 minutes , ensure centrifuge is balanced before spinning , the supernatant was removed and pellet ,then the pellet was suspended in 200Â µl Cell lysis buffer (10mMl Tris PH8.0, 300Mm Nacl , 10mg ml-1 Lysozyme). Resuspended cells were frozen at -20 c to the next day. Lastly, sampling was continued until OD600nm is no longer rising for two successive samples or until 16:30 pm. Results and discussion Although it is supposed to harvest between 30-300 colonies per plate (210- 2100 colonies for all groups), just three blue colonies were observed in plates between all groups, which mean that protein of interest (GFP protein ) was not expressed (inefficient) in BL21 E.coli cells due to some factors influenced the expression level or to some technical problems during the experiment which will be discussed. The most popular strain, BL21 and its derivatives, which are good producing protein, are descended from E.coli B and thus is deficient in the Lon protease. Additionally, the BL21 background lacks the OmpT outer membrane protease. For expression work, BL21 cells should be taken from stock cultures that performed from fresh transforms. This step is crucial to insure that the clone does not change and that each expression run gives optimal performance. Transformation frequency is affected by the purity of the DNA, how the cells are handled, and how the transformation was actually performed. In the impurities in the DNA usually spin columns can be used to purify DNA from PCR reactions, ligations, endonuclease digestions, or other treatments. In addition, the most common mistake when transforming E.coli is to put a lot of ligation mixture in the transformation. Other factors that effect transformation with BL21 are the handling and the storage of the competent cells. Competent cells need to be reserved at -70Â °C to keep them at the peak .It is worthy of noting that 5-10-fold of efficiency usually lost if tube put back in the box and place in the freezer. Moreover, Cells must be thawed on ice, and the transformation should be started immediately after the cells are thawed. Incubating on ice is necessary for chemically competent cells. If you heat shock right away, the efficiencies will be down 10-fold. If incubate for only 15 minutes, it will be down 3-fold. In addition, time of heat shock (75 second) could be not enough , thus, affect the efficiency enough to transformation of E.coli. Moreover, water bath temperature may be not equilibrated (less than 42Â °C or a higher which decrease in transformation efficiency ( Smith, et al, 1992). Also, the concentration of DNA has significant effect on the transformation efficiency , usually less amount of DNA is used. If using more, the result is fewer colonies because the impurities in the DNA will inhibit some of the cells from being transformed. There are main factors to consider during induction conditions: Vector, Host Strain, and Growth Conditions. These three factors have the biggest impact on the expression of the protein of interest. First on the list of considerations is the vector that is used to express GFP protein. The first thing should be considered after cloning, the protein of interest is still in frame. It is recommended that before any experiment is carried out the first thing is should be done is cloned plasmid (or a few different clones) sequenced. This will show if the sequence you inserted into the expression vector is still correct and is still in frame. This is especially important if the construct contains any PCR fragments. If there are any point mutations or the sequence gets out of frame by even a few bases it can have dramatic effects on the protein that expressed. Another thing to check before expressing is if the GFP protein sequence contains long stretches of rare codons. This can cause the prot ein that is expressed to be truncated or non-functional. A few rare cordons spread around the protein are OK in most cases, but if there are a number of rare codons in a row, then it can have a big effect. The third sequence related step to optimize the protein production is to make sure there is not a high GC concentration at the 5 end of GFP protein. This could potentially cause problems with the mRNAs stability, and could prevent it from being translated correctly, which would also lead to truncated or non-functional proteins. If your sequence is GC heavy at this end, you can try to make a few silent mutations to break up long stretches to try and help stability. After the plasmid is sequence verified, the next factor is the bacterial host that is used. There are almost as may hosts as there are expression vectors, with certain hosts excelling in producing different types of proteins. For example if you have a toxic protein, or a protein that could potentially cause genomic rearrangement, you will want a vector that gives you very tight control over the induction of your protein. There can be leaky expression (i.e. expression of your protein without the addition of your inducer) that can potentially have adverse effects on the cells growth or even prevent your cells from over-expressing your protein in the first place. If youre utilizing the T7 polymerase system, then look for a host containing the pLysS plasmid, as this will code for T7 lysozyme, which will suppress the T7 polymerase and can greatly reduce the level of background expression. If as stated before you have a protein that contains a large number of rare codons, then look for a h ost with the genes for the necessary tRNAs already present, which should allow your protein to express correctly. Sometimes simply changing hosts can have a dramatic effect on the amount of protein produced and the stability of the protein that is made, so if one host isnt giving you the results you need, then feel free to switch your host up. The third and final factor to consider when expressing a protein is growth conditions. When first starting out with the protein induction it is very important to run an expression time course, where you take a fresh colony from a streaked plate, and grow the culture to stationary phase. Next, dilute the overnight culture 1/100 and grow to mid log phase, then add the inducer and induce your protein for a number of hours, taking 1mL samples every hour or so. Once these samples are lysed, you can run an SDS-PAGE gel to determine your protein production levels. You might get great induction the first time, or you may have to tweak your conditions in order to get really good expression levels. Other factors that may need to be controlled for are the bacterial growth rate (determined by taking OD measurements during the induction process), and the temperature during induction. Some constructs will express perfectly fine at 37Â °C, while others need to be bumped down to 30Â °C to induce c orrectly. The concentration of the inducer too will have an effect, as many inducers (IPTG) can be toxic to the cells that they are inducing. Using freshly made inducer is good step to making sure you always have consistent results. Only through experimentation can you determine what will be best for your construct, and give you the most robust expression levels. Transformation efficiency: Transformation efficiency is a measure of the ability of cells to be transformed. Transformation efficiency is expressed as the number of transforms per microgram of pUC19. By using the following formula: Colonies on plate / ng of control DNA X 1000ng/Â µg = (transformation (T) / Â µg plasmid DNA) 100 ÃŽÂ ¼L equivalent to 0.01 ng DNA in the plate. Growth curve In general growth curve shows the S- shaped when plotted in log linear format as shown in figure 4, that separated into four phases: Lag phase; the initial period when no increase in cell number is seen. Log phase; when cells are growing at the maximumm rate. Stationary phase; growth decreases as a nutrient are depleted and waste products accumulate. Death phase; this is the result of prolonged starvation and toxicity. Conclusion The main goal for the experiment was to express the protein of interest (GFP). However, factors influencing transformation efficiency include technique errors, the temperature and length of the incubation period, the growth stage of the cells, and using the correct mass of plasmid DNA. Escherichia coli is one of the most important hosts in modern day recombinant protein production. Throughout academia and industry its uses are widespread and with sequence data available for some of the most common strains of the bacteria it has been a favourite organism for many metabolic engineering and metabolic modelling projects in the past (Berry, 1996; Koffas et al., 1999).

Reviewing English in the 21st Century :: essays research papers

Reviewing English in the 21st Century Edited by Wayne Sawyer & Eva Gold Designed for teachers of English, Reviewing English in the 21st Century provides an overview of changes in English teaching in Australia over the last six decades, and the theories behind such changes. This edition also explains current popular theories for teaching English, and suggests methods for implementing them in the classroom. The first section of the book, ‘Reviewing’, relates how new models of English teaching, such as the cultural heritage, skills, personal growth and cultural studies models, have been influenced by developments in learning theories. The second section of the book, ‘Developing and Contextualising†, is concerned with providing effective pedagogies for English teachers in many areas, including ESL students, indigenous students and students with learning difficulties. The final section of the book, ‘Applying’, provides practical applications and student activity suggestions for teaching English, such as methods in drama, media, novels, poetry, visual representations and information technologies. This book focuses on the student as an active participant in their learning, and advocates a student-centred curriculum. By placing value on what the student brings to the classroom, awareness is raised in areas such as youth culture, media and oral practices in English. The significance of traditional English texts is not undermined, however they may be more harshly judged in terms of their relevance to the students (Doecke & McClenaghan, 2004, p. 54). Another strength of the book is the broad spectrum of areas and activities presented for consideration. The syllabus outcomes of reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewing, representing, thinking and communicating are all addressed, within the differing texts of fiction, poetry, film, non-fiction, drama, media and multimedia. Also, an important structural feature of this book is the accessibility of teaching ideas: all suggestions for classroom applications are highlighted by an indented margin, making them easy to identify from t he theory. One weakness of the book is that it can lend itself to being slightly political. For example, after reviewing the popular models of English teaching, the suggested model is justified by presenting a certain aspect of Government funding, which, when all factors in the wider context are considered, ceases to be an issue (Thompson, 2004, p. 21). Both teachers and student teachers will benefit from reading this book. Besides providing many teaching strategies, lists of books suitable for particular stages of the syllabus are included (Tucker, 2004, pp. 210 – 214), as well as some useful web resources (Sawyer & Watson, 2004, p.

Reading Comprehension Essay

Introduction The main objective of this study is to know the common problems of students in reading comprehension specifically the Grade 7 section A students of San Roque National High School. Reading comprehension is one of the problems faced by learners nowadays. Goodman defined reading as â€Å" a receptive psycholinguistic process wherein the actor uses strategies to create meaning from text† (Goodman, 1998). In a classroom setting, reading is one of the effective ways for learners to catch up with the lesson at ease. But in some cases, students find difficulties in the reading process and cause them to understand a certain text. Anderson and Freebody (1981, 1983) stated that vocabulary knowledge of a certain individual makes an important contribution to reading comprehension. Therefore, this is also the fact that makes the students of San Roque National High School (Grade 7) find difficulties in reading comprehension. Walker (1946) stated that â€Å"reading is an active process in which reader shift between sources of information (what they know and what the text says). The means of interpreting the text and responding to what they have read will be the factior also of the common problems in reading comprehension of San Roque National High School. The coginitive ability in reading comprehension contributes to the factors which may help the students to overcome the problem of reading comprehension of Grade 7 students in San Roque National High School. Statement of the Problem Specifically it sought to find answers to the following questions: 1. What are the difficulties in reading comprehension of Grade 7 section A students of San Roque National High School according to the following factors: a.Gender b. Age c. Family Income 2. What are the causes of reading comprehension difficulties of Grade 7 section A students of San Roque National High School according to the following factors: a. Gender b. Age c. Family Income 3. This study will help the researchers to determine the ways to overcome the ways to ovcrcome the difficulties of reading comprehension of Grade 7 section A students of San Roque National High School according to the following factors: a. Gender b. Age c. Family Income Basic Assumptions 1. This study will help the researchers to determine the difficulties in reading comprehension of Grade 7 section A students of San Roque National High School according to gender, age and family income. 2. This study will help the researchers to determine causes of difficulties in reading comprehension of Grade 7 section Astudents of San Roque National High School according to gender, age and family income. 3. This study will help the researches to determine the ways to overcome the difficulties in reading comprehension of Grade 7 section A students of San Roque National High School according to gender, age and family income. Significance of the Study The writers believe that the result of this study will be of great importance to the persons involved in the field of education such as: The Students. This research will help the students be aware of their problems in reading and find solutions. The Teachers. This research will guide the teachers on how to help their students understand their reading problems and provide them solutions. The Future Researchers. This will serve as a source of information and reference on the related field of their studies. Scope and Delimitation of the Study. This study is concerned on the common problems in reading comprehension of Grade 7 students in San Roque National High School, academic year 2013-2014. Grade 7 section A. Definition of Terms Difficulty. The quality or state of being difficult. Reading Comprehension. Understanding what is being read. Comprehension. The art of understanding. Family Income. The amount of such gain received in a period of time of a family. Economic Status. The condition of the person in relation to consumptions of goods and services. Receptive Psycholinguistic Process. Process wherein the actor uses strategies to create meaning from text. Vocabulary. all the words used by or known to a particular person or group, or contained in a language as a whole. Interpreting. to establish or explain the meaning or significance of something. Responding. to act or do something in reaction to something else. Cognitive ability. relating to the process of acquiring knowledge by the use of reasoning, intuition, or perception. ENDNOTES Chapter 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES Related Literature Reading comprehension is the capacity to identify and understand meanings communicated by the text. Once an individual understand the different letters that create words, and they can use their knowledge to identify words and then comprehend a message that a compilation of words will make. Walker (1946) explained that reading is an active process in which readers shift between sources of information, elaborate meaning and strategies, and check their interpretation and use of the social context to focus their response. Wardhaugh (1974) seems to agree that reading is an active, productive, and cognitive activity. He also pointed that reading involves an active search for information and interaction with the text. Anderson (1981) and Freebody (1983) said that vocabulary knowledge of a certain individual makes an important contribution to reading comprehension. In connection with the idea of Anderson (1981) and Freebody (1983), Hirsh and Nation (1992) and Laufer (1989) also stated that in order to gather greater vocabulary knowledge, reacting with the use of L2 (second language) should be acquired, Villa (2002) suggested that the student must be provided with basic skills in the use of the language as a tool for learning and for communicative competencies in business, science and technology. Related Studies Reviews of studies in the area of problems in reading comprehension revealed that researchers in this area concentrated on: (a) the â€Å"simple review† of reading, (b) strategy of using standardized test in reading accuracy, (c) causes of poor reading comprehension. Hoover and Gough’s analysis (1990) centered on the â€Å"simple review† of reading. Reading comprehension comprises two sets of skills, those concerned with decoding linguistic comprehension are necessary and neither skill on its own is sufficient if successful reading comprehension is to follow. Nation and Snowling’s study (1998) found that poor comprehenders read nonwords as quickly as control children. This experimental finding is confirmed by observations that poor comprehenders perform at age-appropriate levels on standardized tests of nonword reading accuracy. Nation and colleagues have used the strategy of matching poor comprehenders to control children on nonword reading. Another study conducted by Perfetti (1985) found that poor comprehension is a consequence of inadequate processing, lack of knowledge, or some combination of both processing and knowledge-based weaknesses. Synthesis-of-the-state of the Art The synthesis-of-the-state of the art presents the differences and similarities of the previous and the present studies. The present and previous studies have differences in the area of provlems in reading comprehension that the researchers studied. The study of Perfetti (1985) focused on the causes of poor reading comprehension. The study of Nation and Snowling (1998) focused on poor comprehenders on nonword reading. And Hoover and Gough’s analysis (1990) focused on the reading skills. Almost all studies identified the problems encountered by the respondents, the most prevalent one was the problem in reading comprehension. Walker (1946), Wardhaugh (1974), Anderson (1981), Freebody (1983) and Villa (2002) studies focused more on the contribution of reading comprehension to the individuals. Walker (1946) explained that reading is an active process that was agreed by Wardhaugh (1974) and said that reading is an activity, specifically, productive and cognitive activity and that reading involves an active search for information and interaction with the text. Anderson (1981) and Freebody (1983) focused on the vocabulary knowledge that makes an important contribution to reading comprehension that was seconded by Hirsh and Nation 1992 and Laufer (1989) that in order to gather vocabulary knowledge, the use of L2 as a second language should be required. While Villa (2002) that students must be provided with basic skills in the use of language as a tool for learning and for common competencies in business, science and technology. It may be observed that in the discussion of the studies stated above, in reading comprehension the thinking capabilities of students are a great factor in conducting the study. Theoretical Framework G identifies three main theories of reading comprehension. These theories are: Based on the schema theory, depending on how extensive their â€Å"files† become, their degree of reading comprehension may vary. Schema is the organized knowledge that is already has about people, places, things, and events. Each schema is â€Å"filed† in an individual compartment and stored there. In attempting to comprehend reading materials, students can relate this new information to the existing information they have compartmentalized in their minds, adding it to these â€Å"files† for future use. The mental modes can be thought of as a mind movie created in one’s head, based on the reading context. This model is reconstructed or updated to reflect the new circumstances as the situation changes, but the items important to the main character are kept in the foreground. The proposition theory involves the reader constructing a main idea or macrostructure as they process the text. These main ideas are organized in a hierarchical fashion with the most important things given the highest priority to be memorized. Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework is based on the systems approach, which shows the interplay of the four major elements such as the Input, Output and Feedback. Input is made up of the profile of the 30 students of Grade 7 in San Roque National High School who serve as the respondents of this study in terms of age, genders, family income and the common problems in reading comprehension of the respondents. Process is the distribution and retrieval of survey questionnaire, analysis and interpretation of data. Output is the determining of the problems in reading comprehension of Grade 7 students in San Roque National High School. Feedback is the response and goal of the research which determine the common problems in reading comprehension of Grade 7 students in San Roque National High School. FEEDBACK ENDNOTES Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY Research Design The researchers used the descriptive method in analyzing and revealing the common problems in reading comprehension. The causes of reading comprehension difficulties and the ways to overcome the difficulties in reading comprehension of Grade 7-Ruby student in San Roque National High School S. Y. 2013-2014. The Subject The respondents of this study were the Grade 7-Ruby students of San Roque National High School. The Research Instruments The researchers used a questionnaire to determine and collect accurate information that identify the common problems in reading comprehension of Grade 7-Ruby students of San Roque National High School, and the possible ways to overcome the difficulty. Data Gathering Procedure Survey questionnaire was given twice to the students for the dry run and finalization. The data’s and information from the survey questionnaire will be used in the summary of the study. Statistical Treatment of Data To facilitate the analysis, interpretation and the presentation of data, the appropriate statistical tools were chosen and applied. In this study, frequency, percentage distribution and ranking were used. Below is the formula used in computing the percentage. P(%) = f/n x 100 Wherein: P = unknown f = frequency n = ENDNOTES CHAPTER 4. COMMON PROBLEMS IN READING COMPREHENSION OF GRADE 7 SECTION RUBY STUDENTS IN SAN ROQUE NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL This chapter dealt with the presentation, analysis and interpretation of data gathered through the use of a survey questionnaire. The discussion and analysis of data are focused on the common problems in Reading Comprehension according to Gender, Age and Family income, causes of the problem, the ways to overcome the problems and same with the profile of the respondents. The respondents of this study were the Grade 7 section Ruby students. The coverage of the study was extended to thirty-five respondents. I. Profile of the Respondents This part described the profile of the respondents in terms of Age, Gender and Family Income. Table 1. 1 Age of the Respondents Age Frequency Percentage % Rank 12 17 49 1 13 16 46 2 14 1 2. 5 3 15 0 0 – 16 0 0 – 17 1 2. 5 3 Total 35 100% Table 1. 1 shows the age of the respondents and range from twelve to seventeen years old. It could be noted from the table that 17 out of 35 respondents or 49% belong to the age twelve, ranked first; 16 or 46% belong to age thirteen, ranked second;1 or 5% belong to age fourteen and seventeen, ranked third. It is implied that most of the students belong to the age bracket of 12 years old. Table 1. 2 Gender of the Respondents Gender Frequency Percentage Rank Male 14 40% 2 Female 21 60% 1 Total 35 100% Table 1. 2 shows the gender of the respondents. It could be noted from the table that 40% belong to male respondents and 60% belong to the female. It is implied that most of the students are females. Table 1. 3 Monthly Family Income of the Respondents Monthly Income Frequency Percentage % Rank 500-5000 Php 12 34. 4 % 2 5000-15 000 Php 17 48. 6 % 1 15 000-25 000 Php 4 11. 4 % 3. 25 000-30 000 Php 2 5. 7% 4 Total 35 100 % Table 1. 3 shows the monthly family income of the respondents ranging from the starting amount of 500. 00 Php (Five Hundred Pesos) to 30 000. 00 Php (Thirty Thousand Pesos). It could be noted from the table that 34. 3 % belong to the respondents who’s family’s income ranges from 5000-15 000 Php ranking to the 1st place; 34. 3% belong to the respondents who’s family’s income ranges from 500-5000 Php; ranking the 2nd place, 11. 4 belong to the respondents who’s familys’s income ranges from 15 000-25 000 Php; ranking the 3rd place; and 5. 7 belongs to the respondents family’s income ranges from 25 000-30 000; ranking 4th place. It is implied that majority of the respondents belong to 5000-15 000 Php monthly family income. II. Difficulties in Reading Comprehension a. Age Table 1. 4 Difficulties Most Difficult More Difficult Less Difficult Least Difficult f % f % f % f % Difficulties in understanding 2 5. 71% 16 45. 71% 16 45. 71% 1 2. 9% Difficulties in understanding unfamiliar words 2 5. 71% 19 54. 29% 11 31. 4% 3 8. 6% Difficulties in finding reading materials 2 5. 71% 9 45. 71% 21 60% 3 8. 6% Total 5. 7% 41. 9% 45. 7% 6. 7% Table 1. 4 shows the age of the respondents according to their difficulties in reading comprehension. It could be noted from the table that 5. 7% of the respondents say that understanding sentences is the most difficult; 5. 7 % says that it is more difficult another 45. 71% of the respondents says that it is less difficult and 2. 9% says that it is least difficult. b. Gender Table 1. 5 Difficulties Most Difficult More Difficult Less Difficult Least Difficult f % f % f % f % Difficulties in understanding 7 20% 4 11. 4% 21 60% 3 8. 6% Difficulties in understanding unfamiliar words 2 5. 71% 20 57. 1% 10 28. 6% 3 8. 6% Difficulties in finding reading materials 3 8. 6% 7 20% 18 51. 4% 7 20% Total 11. 4% 29. 5% 46. 7% 12. 4% c. Family Income Table 1. 6 Difficulties Most Difficult More Difficult Less Difficult Least Difficult f % f % f % f % Difficulties in understanding 3 8. 6% 9 25. 7% 19 54. 3% 4 11. 4% Difficulties in understanding unfamiliar words 8 22. 9% 11 31. 4% 13 37. 1% 3 8. 6% Difficulties in finding reading materials 3 8. 6% 12 34. 3% 15 42. 9% 5 14. 3% Total 13. 4% 30. 5% 44. 8% 11. 4% III. Causes of Reading Comprehension Difficulties a. Age Table 1. 7 Causes 12 13 14 15 16 17 f % f % f % f % f % f % a. Lack of reading materials 4 23. 5% 6 37. 5% 1 100% 0 0 0 0 0 11. 4% b. Cannot afford to buy reading materials 9 52. 9% 11 68. 8% 0 0% 0 0 0 0 0 8. 6% c. No time for reading 9 52. 9% 3 18. 8% 0 0% 0 0 0 0 0 14. 3% d. no interest in reading 3 17. 6% 3 18. 8% 1 100% 0 0 0 0 0 e. Exposure to computers rather than books 3 17. 6% 4 25% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 f. visual impairment 1 11. 8% 4 25% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g. spend more time in watching T. V. 14 82. 4% 13 81. 3% 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 25% Total 17 37% 16 39. 3% 1 28. 6 0 0 0 0 Table 1. 7 shows the age bracket of the respondents according to the causes of reading comprehension difficulties. It could be noted from the table that the respondents who are 12 years old says that spending more time in watching television is the number 1 cause of their reading comprehension difficulties with 82. 4 %. For the respondents age 13 with 81. 3% says that spending more time watching television is the number 1 cause of their reading comprehension difficulties. 100% from their age of 17 stated that spending more time in watching television is the cause of their reading comprehension difficulties. None of the respondents are aligned in the age 15-16 years old. b. Gender Table 1. 8 MALE CAUSES f % Rank a. Lack of reading materials 5 35. 7 3rd b. Cannot afford to buy reading materials 7 50 2nd c. No time for reading 5 35. 7 3rd d. no interest in reading 5 35. 7 3rd e. Exposure to computers rather than books 3 21. 4 4th f. visual impairment 0 0 g. spend more time in watching T. V. 11 78. 6 1st Total 36 36. 7 FEMALE CAUSES f % Rank a. Lack of reading materials 6 28. 6 4th b. Cannot afford to buy reading materials 11 52. 4 2nd c. No time for reading 9 42. 9 3rd d. no interest in reading 3 14. 3 6th e. Exposure to computers rather than books 4 19. 0 5th f. visual impairment. 6 28. 6 4th g. spend more time in watching T. V. 17 8. 0 1st Total 21 38. 1 Table 1. 8 shows the gender of the respondents according to the causes of reading comprehension difficulties. It could be noted from the table that 78. 6% of males says that spending more time is watching the females says that spending more time in watching television is the cause of their reading comprehension difficulty. It is implied that females are more close to the addressed on that cause in reading comprehension difficulty which is spending more time in watching television. c. Family Income Table 1. 9.

Progress of Malaysian Women

The Progress of Malaysian Women Since Independence 1957 – 2000 Published by: Ministry of Women and Family Development Level 1-4, Block E Bukit Perdana Government Office Complex Jalan Dato’ Onn 50515 Kuala Lumpur Tel:03-29630095 Fax:03-26938498 E-mail:[email  protected] gov. my Website:www. kpwk. gov. my With funding support from: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei Darussalam Published September 2003 ISBN:983-41432-0-6 Printed by: Bar Code Design Network Copyright  © 2003 Ministry of Women and Family Development.All Right Reser ved. Request for permission to reprint any material should be directed to the Ministry of Women and Family Development. CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY FOREWORD CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION I. BACKGROUND II. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY III. METHODOLOGY IV. OVERVIEW OF THE REPORT V. GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT PLANNING VI ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF WOMEN VII. LEGAL STATUS OF WOMEN – Wome n under the Federal Constitution – Employment Legislation and Women – Other Laws Affecting the Status of Women VIII.CONCLUSION CHAPTER 2 – EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF WOMEN I. INTRODUCTION II. FORMAL EDUCATION – Enrolment in Primary and Secondary Schools – Female Enrolment in Technical and Vocational Education – Tertiary Education – Education Attainment of Rural Women – International Comparison in Educational Attainment III. NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING IV. FUTURE CHALLENGES V. RECOMMENDATIONS VI. CONCLUSION CHAPTER 3 – WOMEN AND THE ECONOMY I. INTRODUCTION II.TRENDS IN WOMEN'S ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION – Women in the Labour Force – Employment Status of Women – Employment by Sector – Employment by Occupational Category – Potential Growth Areas: Women in Business and Professional Services Page vii x 14 14 16 17 18 19 23 26 26 27 28 30 33 33 33 34 37 39 42 42 43 47 50 51 53 53 54 54 55 56 61 64 The Progress of Women Since Independence III. IV. V. – Women Entrepreneurs: From Micro-Enterprises to Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) FUTURE CHALLENGES RECOMMENDATIONS CONCLUSION 5 67 70 72 73 73 74 74 74 76 78 79 79 80 80 82 82 83 84 86 87 89 90 CHAPTER 4 – WOMEN AND HEALTH I. INTRODUCTION II. GENERAL HEALTH STATUS – Indicators of Health Status – Maternal Mortality – Nutritional Status of Women – Fertility Trends III. REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH SERVICES – Family Planning – Antenatal and Postpartum Care – Management of Cervical and Breast Cancers IV. HEALTH CONCERNS IN THE NEW MILLENNIUM – Health Needs of Older Women – Domestic Violence – Mental Health – The HIV/AIDS Epidemic V. FUTURE CHALLENGES VI.RECOMMENDATIONS VII. CONCLUSION CHAPTER 5 – WOMEN IN DECISION MAKING AND POWER SHARING 93 I. INTRODUCTION 93 II. TRENDS IN LEADERSHIP AND POWER SHARING 94 – Political Membership a nd Leadership 94 – Political Candidacy 96 – Elected Offices and Appointments 97 – Representation in the State Assemblies 99 – Share of Leadership and Decision-Making Positions in the Public Sector 99 – Key Management Positions in the Public Sec tor 99 – Appointments in the Foreign Service 101 – Representation in Local Authorities 101 – The Grassroots Level 103III. IV. V. – Management Positions in the Private Sector – Non-Government Organizations (NGO), Trade Unions and Cooperatives – Participation in NGOs – Participation in Trade Unions – Representation in Cooperatives FUTURE CHALLENGES RECOMMENDATIONS CONCLUSION 104 105 105 106 108 108 111 112 115 REFERENCES LISTS OF BOXES Box 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 2. 1 3. 1 Titles Page Malaysia’s First Lady, Dato’ Seri Dr. Siti Hasmah bt. Mohd.Ali – An Inspiring Role Model for Malaysian Women 12 Definition of Discrimination 30 Selected Relevant Declarations and Action Plans Signed by the Government of Malaysia 31 Scaling Up Micro-Enterprises, Department of Agriculture 46 Datuk Muhaiyani Shamsuddin, Founder and Managing Director of Muhaiyani Securities Sdn Bhd and Deputy Chairperson of the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange 66 Dato’ Sharizat Abdul Jalil – An Advocate and Solicitor, an Eminent Corporate Figure and a Cabinet Minister 91 Tan Sri Datuk Nuraizah Abdul Hamid – A Woman of Distinction in the Public Service 113 . 1 5. 2 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 Title Page Primary School Enrolment by Sex, Malaysia,1957–2000 34 Secondary School Enrolment by S ex, Malaysia,1957–2000 35 Percentage of Males and Females in Primary and Secondary Schools, Malaysia,1957–2000 36 2. 4 2. 5 2. 6 2. 7 2. 8 2. 9 2. 10 2. 11 2. 12 2. 13 3. 1 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 4. 6 5. 1 5. 2Number of Students Enrolled in Year Six to Form Five by Sex,1991–1995 Enrolment in Vocational and Technical School s by Sex, Malaysia,1957–2000 Proportion of Female: Male Students in Vocational and Technical Schools, Malaysia 1957–2000 Enrolment in Tertiary Institutions by Sex, Malaysia, 1957–2000 Proportion of Males and Females in Tertiary Education, Malaysia,1959–2000 Enrolment in Engineering Course, Malaysia,1991–1998 Output of Graduates in Engineering, Malaysia,l991–1998 Educational Attainment of Women by Stratum, Malaysia, 1970,1980 and 1991 Number of Students in Adult Education Classes by Sex, Malaysia,1958–1967 Literacy Rate by Sex, Malaysia,1970–2010 Percentage Distribution of Employed Persons by Occupation and Gender, Malaysia,1957–2000 Maternal Mortality per 1,000 Live Births. 1956–2000 Life Expectancy at Birth in Malaysia by Sex,1957–2000 Number of Pap Smears Read by the Ministry of Health, 1982–1998 Number of Reported Cases of Domestic Violence, 1984–1997 Number of Suicide and Self-inflic ted I njury Cases in Malaysia by Sex Number of Women Living with HIV and AIDS,and Deaths in Women from HIV/AIDS Percentage of Women in Elected Offices/Appointed Offices, Malaysia,1959–2001 Women in Top Management in the Malaysian Foreign Service 1992,1994 and 1999 7 37 38 39 40 41 41 42 43 44 63 75 76 81 84 85 86 98 101 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY i. Efforts to forge greater gender equality have resulted in Malaysian women achieving significant progress in key socio-economic areas since Malaysia gained independence in 1957. However, despite the progress made, new concerns on the role and status of women have emerged that could adversely affect the participation of women in the economy and social spheres. In light of this, the Government of Malaysia, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) jointly undertook a study to document and evaluate the progress of women in Malaysia during the period 1957–2000.This study is intended to captu re the achievements of women in education,health,economy, politics and power sharing, and decision making. Secondary data from the Department of Statistics surveys and administrative records from government agencies and nongovernmental organisations are used for the study. The report for the study contains five chapters, with chapters 2 to 5 assessing the progress of women in specific key areas while chapter 1 highlights the Government’s initiatives taken to advance women in development. Development planning for the advancement of women was introduced in the Sixth Malaysia Plan, which has a chapter on the development of women.The Sixth Plan and subsequent plans contain strategies to incorporate women in the process of development in line with the objectives of the National Vision Policy on Women (NPW). Equitable sharing of resources and access to opportunities for men and women forms one of the objectives of the NPW. The formulation and implementation of an action plan to ope rationalise the NPW during the Seventh Malaysia Plan resulted in the implementation of more coherent and focused programmes to integrate women in development and elevate their status. Significant progress has also been made in the setting up of the required institutional and administrative machinery to plan, coordinate, implement and monitor the development of women. These include the Ministry of Women and Family Development, the Department ii. iii. vii f Women Affairs (HAWA), the National Advisory Council for the Integration of Women in Development (NACIWID) and the National Council of Women’s Organisations (NCWO). In addition, the enactment of new laws and the continuous review and amendment of existing legislation have been undertaken to preserve, reinforce and protect the rights and legal status of women. iv. Malaysian women have benefited from increased access to education and training as indicated by the improvement in their literacy rates and net enrolment at all level s of education since 1957. The enrolment of female students at the primary level increased by more than three and a half times during the period 1957–2000.At the secondary level, the enrolment of female students increased by more than 36 times to reach a total enrolment of 985,692 students in 2000. With regard to enrolment in technical and vocational schools the percentage of male students has always been higher than female students. The enrolment of Malaysian women in tertiary institutions reflected the evolution of tertiary education in Malaysia, which has been gradually expanding in total number and relative terms, especially after 1970. In 1959, female undergraduates comprised 10. 7 per cent of the total student enrolment in the University of Malaya, but increased to 51. 3 per cent of the total enrolment in local universities by 2000.Non-formal educ ation in the form of adult education, home economics and entrepreneurial training programmes has improved the literacy rates of rural women and enabled them to acquire new knowledge and skills. Despite the increasing number of female student enrolment at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels, the concentration of female students in non-technical courses is a major area of concern. The participation of women in the labour force has been increasing since 1957,they are engaged in paid employment or are employers, self-employed and unpaid family workers in all economic sectors. Overall, female employment accounted for 34. 7 per cent of total employment in 2000 as compared to only 24. per cent in 1957. An analysis of female employment by occupational category also shows a rising trend of women moving into occupations that require postsecondary education. However, the majority of women are concentrated in low-skilled and low-waged occupations. They are viii v. under- represented in top managerial and decision-making posts in both the public and private sectors. Gender-specific issues that continue to hind er the progress of women in the economy include traditional gender constructs, sex role stereotyping and gender division of work, multiple roles of women, gender segmentation and stratification, and gender discrimination at work.To address these issues, more concrete steps will have to be taken so that women’s involvement in the labour market and corporate world can be more significant and meaningful. vi. Improvement in the health status of Malaysian women in the last four decades has been the key to their well-being and active participation in the economic, political and social development in the country. Efforts in expanding and developing health services targeted at women and the family have been successful in reducing the incidence of deaths arising from communicable and noncommunicable diseases. The average life expectancy of women increased from 58. 2 years in 1957 to 75 years in 2000. The maternal mortality rate, a direct indicator of women’s reproductive health , has declined by tenfold to 0. per 1,000 live births after 43 years of independence. However, new health concerns are emerging and these include the health needs of older women, occurrence of domestic violence, mental disorders and increased incidence of HIV/AIDS cases. Malaysian women’s share in power sharing and decision-making in politics and the economy has been on an upward trend since independence. There has been an incremental increase in women voters, membership in political parties, political candidates, and appointments to elected and appointed offices. However, a gender gap still exists between men and women in terms of access to highlevel positions and participation in decision-making.The number of women holding top management posts in the civil service and corporate sector is still relatively small. Gender barriers leading to the under-representation of women in decision-making and powersharing positions include cultural and institutional factors, gender roles a nd ethnicity, political culture, limited platform for women in political parties, lack of a critical mass, and gender-blind elements in recruitment and promotion. ix vii. Dato’ Seri Shahrizat Abdul Jalil Minister of Women and Family Development Malaysia Since independence,women in Malaysia have actively contributed towards the development of the country. Over the past four decades, we have seen significant improvements in the status of women and in gender equality.The educational attainment of women is at a higher level, their participation in the labour force has increased and legislation that grants equal opportunities for women and respect for their human rights has been adopted in Malaysia. The country now has a growing number of women Ministers and policy makers. This report documents the achievements of women in Malaysia since the country attained independence in 1957 and allow us a look into the past to gain invaluable lessons. I sincerely hope that this report will be an important source of information to everyone who has the interest of Malaysian women in their hearts. The report also takes the opportunity to x honour Malaysian women who were pioneers in their respective fields and achieved success, all in their own terms.The accomplishments of these women will definitely be an inspiration to other women in Malaysia to strive for greater heights. While the progress attained by women in Malaysia is remarkable, there is still room for improvement in certain areas, especially in science and technology. We cannot afford to bask in the successes we have achieved thus far. We must never forget that the gains made to date may be reversed should indifference, complacency or negligence set in. The journey to enhance women's status in Malaysia is a continuing one because we have an important role to play in supporting Vision 2020,that is, the Government's aim for Malaysia to achieve a developed country status by the year 2020.The report would not have co me to fruition without the support and cooperation from individuals and organizations, the public and private sectors, and the non-governmental organisations. Therefore, I would like to extend my sincere appreciation especially to the Economic Planning Unit of the Prime Minister's Department, members of the Steering Committee, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) for the assistance rendered in preparing this report. Thank You. July 2003 xi The Progress of Women Since Independence Box 1. 1: Malaysia’s First Lady, Dato’ Seri Dr Siti Hasmah bt. Mohd. Ali — An Inspiring Role Model for Malaysian Women Dato’ Seri Dr Siti Hasmah bt. Mohd. Ali,wife of the Prime Minister of Malaysia, is a medical doctor.She was the second Malay woman to graduate from the Faculty of Medicine,University of Malaya in Singapore in 1955,and in a way,set the record for women in her time. She attributed her medical achievement to the foresight of her father who encouraged his children to excel in their studies by sending them to the best schools. She was the first woman to be appointed a medical officer in the Maternal and Child Health Department in the state of Kedah, which had a high incidence of poverty in the early days after independence (1950s to 1960s). In 1974,she was the first woman to be appointed as the State Maternal and Child Health Officer. Thereafter, she became aware of the needs of women, the majority of whom were illiterate, suffering from ill health and living in extreme poverty.Due to poor education as well as inadequate infrastructure, including health services, they were resorting to traditional birth attendants. According to her, in the early days, many women died during childbirth from a lack of health services. Stillbirths and infant mortality were common occurrences. Diseases like tuberculosis plagued the people, especially the children. Women were ignorant of the methods of family planning. This prompted her and her husband to pioneer the setting up of the Kedah Family Planning Association, a non-government organisation offering family planning services to women, thus providing them a means to plan their pregnancies.Her efforts in promoting the health of women is evident in several articles she wrote on the socio-economic factors associated with pregnancy and childbearing in Malaysia. She has been accorded academic recognition as reflected by her appointment as the Chancellor of the Multimedia University in 1997 and the honorary doctorates she has received not just from local (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia) but also from foreign universities (Indiana University, USA and University of Victoria, Canada). In 1992, she was chosen as one of the six Core-Group Initiators of First Ladies to champion the economic advancement of rural women,and in 1995, she Continued on next page 12The Progress of Women Since Independence assumed the chairmanship of the Regional Stee ring Committee on the Economic Advancement of Rural and Island Women for the Asia Pacific Region (RSC-AP). In 1996, she took over the helm of the International Steering Committee on the Economic Advancement of Rural Women (ISC) as its president. According to her,just before independence the country was preoccupied with post-war reconstruction and during that time, health status was static. Health services were mainly provided through a limited number of government dispensaries (in urban as well as rural areas). There has been significant progress made in health services after independence.This is reflected in improvements in health statistics and the easy availability of services, even in remote and rural areas. The progress is partly due to the peace that has prevailed since independence which had allowed the Government to channel continuous efforts into development in all fields. Education has been an important contributing factor. She says, â€Å"The woman of today is educated s o that she can be economically independent. She is also healthy and is able to take better care of the family. Social and cultural barriers like marrying young, having big families and having to deal with negative attitudes of men can be overcome when women are educated. On the progress of women,she says,â€Å"Women need to recognise that we have gained so much through the hard work of our predecessors;we need not fight for what we have but they had to fight every inch of the way. Therefore, we must recognise,give credit and be grateful to the men and women who have made it possible. Women must acknowledge that we need to work together with men,and together we will be effective partners in development. † Dato’ Seri Dr Siti Hasmah said that the future challenges for Malaysian women include competition among women, exposure to and keeping abreast with men in the area of information technology (IT),and development of entrepreneurship among women.The concerns for women als o include married women having to cope with their careers and families, coping with children who are better educated than their parents, and the impact of HIV/AIDS on women,children and men. Source: Personal interview, July 2001 13 The Progress of Women Since Independence Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION I. BACKGROUND 1. 01 The role and status of women in Malaysia have undergone a profound change since Malaysia gained independence in 1957. With increased access to education,employment opportunities and changes in the socio-cultural environment, Malaysian women have progressed and participated effectively in all aspects of development of the country. Within a period of 43 years they have made inroads into all areas of development and spheres of life.Particularly encouraging is the progress made by women in many key areas such as education, health, employment, and participation in power-sharing and in the decision-making processes. Changes in the legal and institutional framework have also been made to protect, preserve and safeguard their rights and improve their status. As Malaysia evolves from a subsistence agricultural economy to a knowledgebased economy, women will continue to be a primary force influencing the development of future generations of Malaysians as well as an important economic resource. Changes in the socio-cultural environment, which have helped to shape the profile of Malaysian women today, will continue to impact women in development. 1. 02 The 2000 Population Census indicates that about 49. per cent or 11. 4 million of the total population were women,with 52. 6 per cent in the age group 24 years and below, indicating a young female population. The proportion of the female population has increased slightly compared to 48. 4 per cent in 1957. Women have a longer life expectancy, 75 years compared to 70. 2 years for men in 2000. Due to their longer life span,the proportion of women in the 65 years and above age group has increased from 2. 8 per cent in 1957 to 4. 2 per cent in 2000. The health status of women has also improved since 1957, for example, the maternal mortality rate declined from 2. 81 per 1,000 live births in 1957 to 0. 2 in 2000.With increased access to education and employment opportunities, women are entering the labour market and marrying at a later age. The mean age of the first marriage for men and women has risen since 1957,when the mean age for men was 23. 8 years and 19. 4 years for women. For women, it has risen to 22. 3 years in 1980 and 25. 1 years in 2000. 14 The Progress of Women Since Independence 1. 03 As the country progresses towards achieving greater gender equality, the role of the Government has been supportive, pre-eminent and continuous. In particular, the Government has provided an enabling environment for the advancement of women at both the national and international levels.At the national level, the formulation of the National Policy on Women (NPW) in 1989 marked a turning point, enunciati ng for the first time clear guidelines for the effective participation of women in the country’s development. Thereafter, the five-year national development plans prescribed specific strategies and measures, including the establishment of appropriate mechanisms and institutional framework to progressively assimilate women into the mainstream of social and economic activities. Despite the progress made and new measures introduced, new concerns on the status and position of women as well as old issues continued to prevail during the period 1991–2000.The issues are multifarious: violence against women, poverty amongst female-headed households, the need for childcare facilities and support for working mothers, the â€Å"triple load† or burden that women have to carry; work-and-family conflicts, sexual harassment at the workplace, and the under-representation of women in politics and decision-making positions. According to gender researchers and analysts, the root ca use of these issues is the inability of the Malaysian society at large to understand and handle â€Å"gender problems† . Malaysian society continued to perceive the role, responsibilities and relationship between men and women according to the traditional mindset, based on the traditional family model where a male bread-winner heads the family and the wife is a full-time homemaker. The family structure has changed over time particular in the 1990s.The trend shows an increase of nuclear families with dual income; and the Population Census 2000 indicates that 58 per cent of working women are married. Working single women and working mothers have specific needs which require a different support system. During the same period, global â€Å"gender issues† were also raised, culminating in the Beijing Declaration and Plan of Action, calling on all governments to implement gender sensitivity training that would enable planners to formulate gender-responsive policies and progra mmes. 1. 04 At the international level the Government showed its commitment to promote the development of women by being signatory to several inte rn ational conventions on women, including the Fourth Wo rl d Conference on Women (Beijing, 1995).The Conference identified 12 critical areas of concern for the advancement of women. The areas included poverty, 15 The Progress of Women Since Independence education, health, economy, power sharing and decision-making, and institutional mechanisms. As a follow-up to the Beijing Conference on Women Plus 5 and taking cognisance of the need to have a more comprehensive and integrated database of information on Malaysian women, the Government of Malaysia in collaboration with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) undertook this study to document and evaluate the progress of women in Malaysia covering the period 1957–2000.II. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1. 05 The main purpose of the stud y is to chronicle the progress made by women in Malaysia, with special focus on four key areas: health, education and training, employment, power-sharing and political involvement. The study covers the period 1957–2000. The benchmark for measuring women’s progress is gender equality, which is the extent and depth of progress made by women in relation to that achieved by Malaysian men. The study will demonstrate the linkages between national policy initiatives and the advancement of women as well as identify future challenges. Specifically, the study will undertake the following: †¢ †¢ rovide an overview of the progress of women in Malaysia since independence; document the progress made in selected key areas, namely, education, health, employment, politics and power-sharing through basic indicators of quality of life such as access to education,health facilities and economic opportunities; review and analyse the integration of women in the nation’s deve lopment in terms of policy thrusts, key programmes/projects and activities as well as institutional support;and capture the achievements of women in Malaysia in other areas such as economics, politics, social development and law; and wherever applicable, singling out prominent women with outstanding achievements and contributions. †¢ †¢ 16 The Progress of Women Since Independence III. METHODOLOGY 1. 06 This study relies heavily on secondary data from existing government statistics – census data,labour force sur veys, vital statistics of the country – and departmental records from government agencies and ministries, non-governmental organisations and research institutions. These information sources provided women-specific data as well as genderdisaggregated data for the construction of key indicators for the period 1957–2000.Key indicators were compiled for the status of women’s health, access to education and training, and employment, as well as participation in politics and decision-making. The study also used information and data culled from official documents, research publications and reports from relevant agencies. The paucity of gender-disaggregated data limits to some extent the analytical aspect of this report in specific areas. An exception is the census and labour force surveys undertaken by the Department of Statistics. 1. 07 In addition,data was also collected using the case study approach where prominent women, who have contributed significantly in their areas of specialisation, were interviewed.Two women high achievers in decision-making and power-sharing positions were interviewed as role models for young women in Malaysia. 1. 08 Apart from the quantitative analysis using time-series data to show trends in women’s progress, this study also attempts to analyse the progress qualitatively by performing in-depth analyses of certain pertinent gender-sensitive indicators. For instance, the high percentage o f women enrolled in universities is further analysed to see whether women undergraduates are mainly enrolled in women-traditional programmes (that is, pursuing degrees in education and other soft sciences) or in nontraditional programmes (such as engineering and computer sciences).Women’s participation in the professional or higher-level (administrative and managerial) occupational categories and the male-female ratio within a profession are used to assess their progress in employment. The number and share of top-level decision-making positions assumed by women were further analysed to measure the gender gap. To measure the achievement of women in politics, the commonly used gender-sensitive indicator is the women’s share of parliamentary seats. 17 The Progress of Women Since Independence IV. OVERVIEW OF THE REPORT 1. 09 This report is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 highlights the government initiatives taken to advance women in important sectors of development, such as the National Policy on Women (1989) and the National Action Plan.A list of recent amendments to existing legislation that have affected women’s advancement and well-being are also highlighted. This chapter also highlights the Government’s commitment at the international level. Chapters 2 to 5 discuss the progress of women in various key areas. 1. 10 Chapter 2 focuses on education and training of women, with highlights on women’s achievement in education at various levels of formal schooling and training. The trends in enrolment rates, or the ratio of male to female student enrolment at various levels of education, are analysed to measure changes in educational attainment of women and gender gaps in education.Other indicators used to highlight the educational attainment of women for the 1957–2000 period include the ratio of female to male students in technical and vocational education, as well as enrolment in technical and non-technical degree pro grammes at te rt i a ry levels. This chapter also identifies the issues, gender barriers and constraints encountered by women in education and training. There is also a discussion on women’s access to non-formal education and training. Indicators used to measure the ad vancement of women in this area include women’s overall participation in training as well as in specific types of training offered by various agencies. 1. 1 In chapter 3, women’s achievements in economic activities for the period 1957–2000 are given prominence. The chapter elaborates the trends in women’s participation in the labour force, by industry and occupational category, in comparison to men. Women’s progress is assessed by analysing the trends and the gender gap in the employment status, employment pattern and skills as well as their untapped potential and low labour force participation rate. Gender-specific issues and constraints associated with women’s work an d productivity are also identified. 1. 12 Chapter 4 traces the progress of women’s health since independence using standard mortality and morbidity indicators.It shows how women in Malaysia have made great strides in achieving a higher level of health 18 The Progress of Women Since Independence status over the past four decades so that today their mortality and morbidity rates are almost on par if not below that of some of the developed countries. This impressive progress is, in part, due to health programmes that incorporated the risk approach strategy and the confidential enquiry on the maternal death approach. The chapter also highlights how the provision of rural health services has contributed to the improvement of the health status of women in the country. It cautions women against several emerging health issues, which they have to face as they enter the new millennium.These issues include concerns for the health of older women as well as adolescents, the threat of infe ctious diseases including HIV/AIDS,domestic violence, and mental and emotional health problems affecting women due in part to their dual and competing role as mothers and wives and their role as employees. 1. 13 In chapter 5, women’s participation in decision-making and power-sharing positions is assessed by analysing the trends and quality of women’s involvement in politics, and as political appointees as well as participants in the public service sector. The number and distribution of female executives in the private sector as well as in non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are also included in the analysis. The findings confirm the wide disparity that exists between men and women in leadership and decision-making positions.The majority of women involved in politics,and as employees in the private sector, cooperatives and NGOs primarily held lower ranking positions. The author attributes the low participation of women in top decision-making or power- sharing positio ns to the strong influence of traditional thinking that â€Å"men are leaders, women are followers† . In general,this traditional gender ideology permeates the thinking process in the selection of candidates for leadership or decision-making positions. V. GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 1. 14 Efforts in economic and social development in Malaysia began with the implementation of the First Five-Year Plan (1956–1960) on the eve of the country’s independence.This plan and the subsequent development plans concentrated on sustaining economic growth,physical development, diversification of agriculture and industrial development with the objectives of expanding employment opportunities and income improvements. The New Economic Policy, launched in 1971, emphasised national unity and nation-building through a two-pronged strategy of 19 The Progress of Women Since Independence eradicating poverty regardless of race and restructuring society so as to eliminate the identifi cation of race with economic functions. None of the development plans, however, gave any special attention to issues and strategies for the advancement of women until the Sixth Malaysia Plan (1991-–1995). It was the first time that a five-year development plan had included a chapter detailing programmes and projects for the development of women.The chapter also contains specific strategies to effectively incorporate women in the process of development in accordance with the objectives of the National Policy on Women (NPW),which are as follows: †¢ †¢ to ensure equitable sharing in the acquisition of resources and information as well as access to opportunities and benefits of development, for men and women;and to integrate women into all sectors of national development in line with their abilities and needs in order to improve the quality of life, eradicate poverty, abolish ignorance and illiteracy and ensure a peaceful and prosperous nation. 1. 15 While the Sixth Pla n recognised women as an important economic resource, it identified the following constraints which were inhibiting the involvement of women in economic activities: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ he dual and, often, competing responsibilities of family and career restrict the mobility and increased participation of women in the labour market; gender differences in schools not only translate into occupational differentiation later; it also limits the adaptability and participation of women in the labour market; social norms and prejudices regarding the role and status of women in society and in the labour market restrain their involvement in economic activities; women with children, who are financially dependent on their husbands, are particularly vulnerable in cases of domestic violence. The lack of skills very often limits their options, thus preventing them from securing alternative sources of income; 20 The Progress of Women Since Independence †¢ omen are often perceived as secondary earners who only supplement family incomes rather than as co-earners whose economic activities are crucial to the family. Consequently, income-generating programmes targeted at the women generally reinforce their home-maker roles, providing few opportunities for the acquisition of new and more marketable skills; the lack of appropriate management training and the consequent absence of professionalism, inadequate access to credit and a paucity of relevant market information also hinder the participation of women in the economy; and the working environment is generally not conducive to the sustained employment of wives and mothers. This limits the training opportunities available and hampers career development.The separation of home from the workplace and the fixed hours of work constitute additional drawbacks that preclude prolonged female participation in the labour market. †¢ †¢ 1. 16 These issues provided the backdrop for the Government to formulate strategies , and plan for the setting up of an appropriate institutional structure to enhance the social,legal and economic position of women in the next decade. The formulation of an Action Plan to operationalise the NPW in the Seventh Malaysia Plan reflected the Government’s efforts to address these constraints and commitment to include women as equal partners in nation building. The areas included in the Action Plan are: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ trengthening the national machinery for the integration of women in development; raising public awareness and sensitivity towards issues relating to women; mobilising the NGOs to increase their efficiency and effectiveness in undertaking socio-economic programmes; encouraging positive action for the advancement of women in various fields;and 21 The Progress of Women Since Independence †¢ promoting the role of women in family development. 1. 17 The implementation of the Action Plan, a pioneering effort that formally began in 1990, had resulted in more coherent and focussed programmes to integrate women in development and further elevate their status in society. However, there are still constraints that limit progress. At the start of this 21st century, the social and economic status of women relative to men is still not satisfactory and the disparity may become greater due to the effects of globalisation and use of information and communication technology (ICT).In view of these gaps, strategies to enhance the role of women in development were included as one of the key policy thrusts of the National Vision Policy (NVP) 2001–2010. The NVP states that opportunities in employment, business and social activities will be made available without gender bias, thus promoting equity in opportunities for both men and women. Women’s economic participation is to be enhanced through the provision of greater access to training and retraining, more extensive use of flexible working hours, the provision of crech es as well as facilities to enable them to work from home. Entrepreneurship among women will be promoted actively by providing greater access to information,financial and technical resources. 1. 8 To operationalise the NVP in the medium term, strategies and programmes are contained in the Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001–2005). The strategies for the advancement of women focussed on the following: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ increasing female participation in the labour market; providing more education and training opportunities for women to meet the demands of the knowledge-based economy and improve their upward mobility in the labour market; enhancing women’s involvement in business; reviewing laws and regulations that inhibit the advancement of women; improving further the health status of women; reducing the incidence of poverty among female-headed households; 22 The Progress of Women Since Independence †¢ strengthening research activities to inc rease participation of women in development and enhance their well-being;and strengthening the national machinery and the institutional capacity for the advancement of women. 1. 19 The Action Plan, National Vision Policy and various other strategies to promote gender equality and progress of women represent formal and continuing efforts taken by the Government under the various development plans. Their coherent and effective implementation will determine the extent and depth of the incremental progress of women in Malaysia in the years ahead. VI. ADMINSTRATIVE MACHINERY FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF WOMEN 1. 0 The implementation of policies, strategies and programmes requires a supportive institutional structure and appropriate administrative machinery. Significant progress has been made in the setting up of the required institutional and administrative machinery to plan, coordinate, implement and monitor development programmes for women. The establishment of the Ministry of Women and Fami ly Development in February 2001 marks the culmination of efforts to assign women’s development and issues to a specific ministry. The establishment of this new ministry represents an important change in the mindset of policymakers who have become more gender-sensitive.Currently, the institutional structure for women and development can be categorised into planning, coordinating and monitoring (Ministry of Women and Family Development), advisory and planning (National Advisory Council on the Integration of Women in Development), advocacy (National Council of Women’s Organisations), coordination and monitoring (HAWA) and implementation (line ministries and departments, semi-government and non- government organisations). 1. 21 The Ministry of Women and Family Development is the lead agency to undertake gender responsive planning and policy formulation for women. It is responsible for the integration of women in the national development process through coordination, monito ring and evaluation, planning and policy formulation,and reporting to the Government. Its major 23 The Progress of Women Since Independence objective is to mainstream women in nation-building and strengthen the family institution by integrating gender into all aspects of planning and development.To ensure that gender and family perspectives are integrated into national policies, it undertakes coordination on gender issues between Government agencies, NGOs, the private sector and communities as well as audits existing legislation and regulations that affect the interests of women. Its functions also include increasing opportunities for women to upgrade their socio-economic status, and providing education and training opportunities to women to support its planning functions. To support its planning functions, it undertakes research and development in gender, population,family development and reproductive health. It also acts as the secretariat for the National Advisory Council for the Integration of Women in Development (NACIWID) and is the national contact networking with nternational agencies dealing with women’s issues as well as the secretariat for regional and inte rn ational agencies pertaining to women’s programmes. 1. 22 HAWA is a major department under the Ministry and the main contributor to the planning process of the Ministry. It was first set up as the Women’s Affairs Department under the Ministry of Labour, being responsible for the coordination of the development of women. It also acted as the secretariat to the National Advisory Council. In 1978 it was transferred to the Implementation and Coordination Unit (ICU) in the Prime Minister’s Department. In 1983,it was re-designated as a secretariat named HAWA in the Administration and Finance Division of the Prime Minister’s Department. Since 1983 HAWA has undergone several changes.In 1990,it became a government department in the Ministry of National Unity and Social Development, but was placed under the Ministry of Women and Family Development upon its establishment in February 2001. The major responsibilities of HAWA are, among others, to implement the capacity development programmes and projects for women, organise gender sensitisation programmes and gender planning courses to enhance awareness about women’s concerns among policy makers, planners and programmers, and provide skills in integrating issues in development planning and policy formulation. 1. 23 The National Advisory Council on the Integration of Women in Development (NACIWID), a consultative and advisory body to the Government and non-government organisations, was established in 1976 24 The Progress of Women Since Independence n accordance with the United Nations’ Resolution on integrating women into the mainstream of the development process. Its members, who are appointed by the Minister of Women and Family Development, are drawn from women leaders in the community , NGOs, professional bodies, political parties, and the private sector as well as academicians and retired civil servants. NACIWID acts as the main body through which women-related issues are channelled to the relevant authorities, and plans and evaluates activities of women’s organisations. Besides promoting and encouraging research activities, it also communicates with relevant organisations within and without the country to promote national and international understanding. 1. 24 The NationalCouncil of Women’s Organizations (NCWO) is a nonpolitical, non-religious and non-communal organisation, and acts as the umbrella organisation for women NGOs in Malaysia. At present, the NCWO has more than 200 welfare, political,professional and labour organisations affiliated to it, including a number of active and important organisations. The NCWO’s main role is to be a consultative and advisory body to women’s organisations and to bring all these organisations tog ether. It also has a Commission for Action on the National Policy for Women and state level committees. 1. 25 There are various major organisations implementing women in development (WID) programmes.These include the Community Development Division (KEMAS), the National Population and Family Development Board (NPFDB),the Department of Agriculture (DOA) and the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA). KEMAS’s programmes on women focus mainly on family development including home economics such as nutrition and family health at the village level, work-oriented classes such as tailoring and handicrafts and agriculture aimed at producing food for the family or the market, and pre-school programmes such as establishing community pre-school child-care centres and adult literacy programmes. The cultural, social,economic and demographic factors which affect women in development are addressed through activities undertaken by NPFPB. It also promotes population and family development a s well as reproductive health-related concerns.The DOA and FELDA carry out programmes mainly on family development, improvement of the quality of life, entrepreneurship of target groups, and income-generating activities such as training, financial assistance and other inputs for the benefit of women,primarily in FELDA’s 25 The Progress of Women Since Independence agricultural schemes/estates. VII. LEGAL STATUS OF WOMEN 1. 26 Women’s legal status with regard to citizenship, education, employment,legal rights and status in marriage, divorce,and the guardianship of children are embodied in the Federal Constitution as well as in other legislation which have been enacted from time to time. Considerable legislative changes have taken place over time, especially after 1957.New laws have been enacted while existing laws and legislation are continuously being reviewed and amended to preserve, reinforce and protect the rights of women. The adoption of the Women and Girls’ Protection Act 1973 and its 1987 amendments, the implementation of the Domestic Violence Act 1994 in 1996, and the introduction of the Code of Practice on the Prevention and Handling of Sexual Harassment in the Workplace are examples of legislative measures targeted at protecting the dignity of women. Amendments to other pertinent acts and laws such as the Employment Act 1955 and the improved provisions of the Income Tax Act 1967 are aimed at safeguarding the economic interests of women. Women under the Federal Constitution 1. 7 Malaysian women’s rights as citizens to participate in the political and administrative life of the nation are implicitly recognised and guaranteed by the Federal Constitution,which states under Article 8, clause 1,that â€Å"all persons are equal before the law and entitled to the equal protection of the law†. Clause 2 further provides that â€Å"except as expressly authorised by this Constitution,there shall be no discrimination against cit izens on the ground only of religion, race, descent or place of birth in any law or in the appointment to any office or employment under a public authority or in administration of any law relating to the acquisition, holding or disposition of any property or the establishing or carrying on of any trade, business, profession, vocation,or employment†.This clause does not contain a specific provision against gender-based discrimination and may allow for protective discrimination against women under the Employment Act. The omission was rectified on 2 August 2001, when the Dewan Rakyat approved an amendment to Article 8(2) to include the word, â€Å"gender† in the categories referred to in the clause, which now readsâ€Å"there shall be no discrimination against citizens on the ground only of religion, race, descent, place of birth and gender in any law†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Women’s rights are, therefore, now explicitly stated in the Federal 26 The Progress of Women Since In dependence Constitution. 1. 28 The Government had also taken steps to accord equal status to women under the Constitution’s provisions for the award of citizenship and permanent residence.Under A rticle 15 of the Constitution, no conditions were imposed upon foreign wives of citizens to apply for citizenship. However, a subsequent amendment made in 1962 included various conditions, including the â€Å"good character† requirement for foreign wives of citizens when applying for citizenship. By another amendment to Clause 2 of Article 15,citizen rights could be acquired by any child of a citizen. This amendment puts women on par with men as regards the granting of automatic citizenship of children born to them. However, foreign spouses of Malaysian women are denied such rights based on the assumption that, upon marriage, women would follow their husbands to their home countries.With the constitutional amendment of Article 8 (b),steps have been taken to remove the differen tial treatment regarding the acquisition of citizenship rights by the foreign spouses of Malaysian women (as announced by the Deputy Prime Minister cum Minister of Home Affairs on Women’s Day 2001). Employment Legislation and Women 1. 29 The Employment Act 1955 (revised in 1981, 1994 and 1999) is the major legislation which regulates all labour relations, and certain parts apply equally to men and women,such as contracts of service, wages, rest hours, hours of work,holidays, annual leave, sick leave, termination and layoff benefits. There are, however, specific parts in the Act, which pertain only to women, such as maternity protection and night work.There is no stipulation in the Act which prohibits employers paying lower wages to their women employees, as compared to male workers, for doing the same amount of work. Women in the private sector may therefore be subject to wage discrimination. In the public sector, however, women have equal pay for equal work. At present,women in the private sector also do not have any legal redress against wage discrimination. Part VIII of the Employment Act 1955,â€Å"Prohibition Against Nightwork† states that no employer shall require female employees to work between 10 o’clock in the evening and 5 o’clock in the morning in the agricultural or industrial sectors.However, the Employment Women Shift Workers Regulations 1970 stipulates that â€Å"any female employee employed in shift work in any approved undertaking which operates at least two shifts per day may work at such times within the hours 27 The Progress of Women Since Independence of 10 o’clock in the evening and 5 o’clock in the morning, as the Director of Labour may approve† The effect of the 1970 regulations is to allow women . to work at night, with the result that female employees working in night shifts have become the general rule rather than the exception. Section 35 of the Employment Act also prohibits the empl oyment of women in underground work,unless the Minister gives an exemption. . 30 Part IX of the Employment Act provides for paid maternity leave for a period of not less than 60 consecutive days for every female employee in the private sector. In May 1998,the Government reviewed and extended the maternity leave for women employees in the public sector from 42 days to 60 days, for a maximum of up to five deliveries. Public sector women employees can choose to extend their maternity leave up to three months as unpaid leave. Paternity leave of up to threedays is also given to male employees in the public sec tor. 1. 31 In 1998, another amendment was made to the Employment Act, which provides for flexible working hours.This provision expands the opportunities for women,including homemakers, to be gainfully employed in part-time work. It also provides opportunities for employees to create flexibility in work processes and arrangements, such as teleworking, homebased work, job sharing, an d compressed workweek that would enable women employees to balance their work and family demands. Other Laws Affecting the Status of Women 1. 32 All Malaysians have equal right to education under the Constitution of Malaysia. This implies that there is no discrimination against women and men. Article 12(1) states that there shall be no discrimination against any citizen on the grounds of religion, race, descent or place of birth: †¢ †¢ n the administration of any educational institution maintained by a public authority, and in particular, the admission of pupils or students or the payment of fees;or in providing out of the funds of a public authority financial aid for the maintenance of education of pupils or students in any educational institution (whether or not maintained by a public authority and whether within or outside the Federation). 28 The Progress of Women Since Independence 1. 33 The Universities and University Colleges Act 1991 stipulates open membership to al l irrespective of gender. The New Economic Policy of 1970 also provides equal access to educ ational opportunities for both male and female Malaysians. 1. 4 With regard to the legal recognition of the guardianship of children, the Guardianship of Infants Act 1961 initially militated against women. The Act was amended in 1999 to allow for joint guardianship of children in matters relating to immigration and registration. With the implementation of the amendment in 2000 mothers are allowed to sign all documents involving their underaged children. 1. 35 The Income Tax Act 1967 (amended in 1975,1978 and 1991) gives an option to married women to have separate income tax assessment. The clause prohibiting a married working woman from separate income tax assessment was subject to several amendments (1975,1978 and 1991). The amendment of 1991 allowed for separate assessments for married women unless they choose to be assessed jointly.Today, women taxpayers, whose husbands have no taxable in come, are eligible for taxable relief similar to that available to a male taxpayer whose wife has no taxable income. 1. 36 With regard to the protection of women against domestic violence, the Domestic Violence Act was passed in 1994 and implemented in 1996. Domestic violence is now dealt with as a criminal offence with appropriate penalties imposed. Realising that legislation may only remove the more blatant discriminatory practices, the Government and NGOs in Malaysia continue to push for greater transparency of procedures adopted by police personnel, and have urged for the appropriate training and gender sensitisation of the relevant parties.Currently, the NGOs are pushing for a review and amendment of the Act. 1. 37 The Ministry of Human Resources issued the Code of Practice on the Prevention and Handling of Sexual Harassment in the Workplace on 1 March 1999. This Code of Practice contains guidelines to employers on the establishment and implementation of in-house preventive and redress mechanisms to prevent and eradicate sexual harassment at the workplace. This approach is believed to be the most effective way of dealing with the problem. Employers are encouraged to implement policies and programmes on anti-sexual harassment, as well as to provide redress mechanisms at the 29 The Progress of Women Since Independence organisational level. 1. 8 There is also a specific legislation to protect the rights and dignity of women. The Women and Girls Pro te ction Act 1973 and the Child Protection Act 1991 were reviewed and streamlined into the Child Act 2000. Both the Women and Girls Protection Act (which contains provisions for prosecuting persons involved in prostitution and trafficking of women) and the Child Protection Act were criticised as being very vaguely worded and could be liberally interpreted. An underaged girl,if found in a dubious place or circumstances, may be interpreted to be â€Å"in need of protection† and may be detained in a corrective centre. Both Acts contain some aspects of discrimination,which could be damaging to victims. Box 1. : Definition of Discrimination Article 1 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) states thatâ€Å"discrimination against women† shall mean: â€Å"any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing,or nullifying the recognition,enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women,of human rights and fundamental freedom in the political,economic, social,cultural,civil,or any other field† . This definition implies that applying a neutral rule for women and men will constitute discrimination if the result is that women do not enjoy the intended benefit. 1. 9 In 1995, prior to the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, Malaysia ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Aga inst Women (CEDAW),with some reservations. VIII. CONCLUSION 1. 40 Malaysian women have made significant progress since Malaysia gained independence in 1957. The progress is perceptible and near universal, with more Malaysian women, in both absolute and relative terms, being 30 The Progress of Women Since Independence involved in all key socio-economic areas than before: in education, in health, in the economy, and in power-sharing and decision-making. The quest for greater gender equality has been relatively successful,although improvements can still be made in certain sectors.It will be necessary for the Government, which has played a leading role in women’s progress in the country, to continue providing the necessary assistance and legislative support to remove persistent barriers and to consolidate further the gains and progress already achieved. 1. 41 The Government’s commitment to improve the status of women has intensified over time. Mainstreaming gender into soc ial and economic development plans is a continuous process to be undertaken by line ministries and state agencies (implementing women specific programmes and projects). Even so, Malaysia is an example of a country which has, since gaining independence, made great progress in improving the quality of life and status of women, particularly in providing them with ever-increasing opportunities to become stakeholders in the country’s economic development. Box 1. : Selected Relevant Declarations and Action Plans Signed by the Government of Malaysia †¢ Equal Remuneration Convention (ILO No. 100),1951; †¢ Discrimination (Employment and Occupational) Convention (ILO No. 111),1958; †¢ First World Conference on Women 1975; †¢ International Women’s Decade (1975–1985); †¢ The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW),1978; †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Third World Conference on Women,1985; Declaratio n on the Advancement of Women in the ASEAN Region,1988; Earth Summit Agenda,1991; Geneva Declaration for Rural Women by the Summit on the Economic Advancement of Rural Women,1992; 31 The Progress of Women Since Independence †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢World Social Development Conference, 1994; International Conference on Population and Development, Cairo, 1994; Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing 1995; World Food Summit, 1996; Micro-Credit Summit, 1997; An Update to the 1995 Commonwealth Plan of Action on Gender and Development: Advancing the Commonwealth Agenda for Gender Equality into the New Millennium (2000–2005);and †¢ Beijing Plus 5, Women 2000: Gender Equality, Development and Peace for the 21st Century (Special Session of the Venereal Assembly, 5–9 June 2000). 32 The Progress of Women Since Independence Chapter 2 EDUC ATION AND TRAINING OF WOMEN I. INTRODUCTION 2. 01 Article 12 (1) of the Federal Constitution which guarantees the r ight to education for all Malaysians regardless of gender has enabled Malaysian women to gain equal access to education and training. They have benefited from the increased access as indicated by the improvement in women’s literacy rates and net enrolment at all levels of education since independence.Education, formal and non-formal has been vital for the personal, social and economic development of the women in Malaysia. An ongoing process,it has been the means for improving the knowledge, skills and attitudes of Malaysian women and their development capacity. With higher educational attainment Malaysian women are able to participate actively in the development of the nation, exercise their voice in the family, the communit y, place of work and the public arena of politics as well as enjoy greater economic independence. Despite the improved educational attainment of Malaysian women, gender differences still exist in enrolment in science and technical subjects,and the educati on they receive has gender stereotypes that perpetuate gender inequality. 2. 2 This chapter will trace the achievement of women in education and training, formal and informal, since independence. The advancement of women in formal education will be discussed in terms of the progress made with regard to accessibility to education as well as the gender-related concerns such as enrolment in science and technology education. Gendersensitive indicators such as the trends in female enrolment, the proportion of male to female student enrolment at the primary, secondary and tert