Jim Morrison by Kelly Larson Essay

Jim Morrison by Kelly Larson 1943-1971 There are many figures in music that make them a household name, Jim Douglas Morrison, the lead singer of The Doors a popular rock group in the late 60’s who died at a very young age, has made him just this. Jim Morrison was in the only extremely progressive rock bands of that time, experimenting with synthesizers, and new ways to play the otherwise boring guitar; this band the doors was truly something else. Many people thought that Jim was a genius others thought he was a fool. He had very public arrest and court trail about exposing himself to a crowd in 1969 raised increasing questions about his actual death in 1971. Jim Morrison set new ways to write music and poems for the new avant-garde generation that would follow in the years to come. He would inspire some of the most successful musicians many years after his death. In death Jim was perceived more than just a rock star he was now a legend. Jim Douglas Morrison was born on December 8th, 1943 in Melbourne Florida, what is now cape Kennedy naval base. Jims father Steve Morrison was from Florida; in high school he was a gymnast and a cheerleader. He entered the Second World War but never actually fought. He met Jims mother Clara in Honolulu Hawaii in 1941, at a naval dance. Clara was Steves opposite; he was conservative she was liberal. Soon after they met they married in that same year. After they were married Steve was taught how to fly, he would regularly fly over the pacific. In 1943 Jim was born in one of many naval bases were he and Clara stayed. After the war ended he returned home to Clearwater Florida, to live nearby his parents and Jim grandparents who were extremely republican and average churchgoers. Lifestyle for Jims early life was hectic they moved frequently a typical military lifestyle; over the point of five years after Jim was born the Morrisions had two more children besides Jim. Although Jim always said his parents and siblings were dead in many interviews they were very much alive at that time. They lived in Washington D.C, and Florida to California. When Jim was five years old he was in a car traveling along with relatives along the highway near Albuquerque and Santa Fe, Jim had a life changing experience. Jim grandmother Caroline said â€Å"We came upon an accident Indians were wailing And crying. Later we thought it was very unusual Because we  thought Indians didn’t cry. We thought They were more stoic than that. Jimmy was very Much affected he wanted to do something. We Stopped lance (her husband), jimmy wanted To do more. He was upset, his father finally Had to say, jimmy you dreamed it didn’t happen. It’s not true; you just had a bad dream. Source 1-P.34 Jim said when they stopped the car dying Indians became reincarnated into his young body. This would forever change Jim Morrison life. He began to take up writing and art when he was seven. Then when he entered junior high he was exposed to new films that blew his mind. Then in 1957, in Alameda California Jim started high school He excelled in writing and art not a surprise to people who knew him. Many teachers noticed how bright Jim was beyond his years. Jim read everything he could get his hands on. Halfway between his sophomore year the Morrisons moved to Alexandria, Virginia. Jim enrolled in George Washington high school; a segrated upper middle class school. Jim began pulling himself into cartooning and writing. He had a girlfriend named Tandy that year, who lived houses three houses down who was extremely tormented by him, but it kept on her toes and it made her like him. He would say things to shock and embarrass her. Jim had his own room in the basement; he painted, self-portraits, and impressionistic paintings. He filled up notebooks with poems and songs, some songs that were later used with his work with The Doors a band he would later be the singer in. Jim took a IQ test in high school were he scored a 149, but he got b’s in high school because he didn’t care about his grades. Shortly after he graduated from high school Jim broke up with Tammy, and he packed up and enrolled in St Petersburg junior in Clearwater Florida living with his grandparents. When college started Jim began to get severely into alcohol. After one year, passing all of his classes he decided to enroll to Florida State to pursue majoring in theater arts. Jim made very big impressions on everyone he would meet. Jim over the summer retuned to California where his parents and siblings were living since Jim left for college. He fought with his parents that summer beca use he wanted to live with them but they didn’t want him to but he did anyway and he enrolled in UCLA. He began to take classes in filming and directing, there thinking it would be something he wanted to do. In fact Jim began involved more into the â€Å"party scene† than his studies, he got a D on his  first film and it crushed his dreams of begin a filmmaker. During this time he began to write various poems that would become The Lords and New Creatures book. During one of his random parties he met a musician named Ray Manzarek, a man in a jazz band that Jim liked. Jim told everyone he knew he was going to New York after college to be a poet, after college barely graduating Jim didn’t know what to do. Many nights he would spend his night sleeping on rooftops and the beach in California. One day in the august after school got out Ray ran into his friend Jim Morrison and asked him what he’s been doing, Jim said he was writing. Ray asks him to read or sing something he’s written Jim sings off key the song â€Å"moonlight drive† a popular Doorsâ€℠¢ song, that would in fact make them famous but they didn’t know that yet. Ray immediately asks Jim if he wanted to start a band with him, Jim agrees. They begin to start this new band with Ray’s two brothers; they name the band The Doors after the book The Doors of Perception. Often very nervous on stage Jim just stood there and didn’t sing very well. After they thought the band wasn’t going anywhere rays brothers lefthe band. Ray and Jim met john Densmore, a drummer Who’s off beat style intrigued Jim and Ray, and then they met Robby Krieger a guitarist in a jazz band at the time, they immediately asked him to join the band. They lacked a bassist but when they had practiced Ray and Jim decided they didn’t need one. They began to play shows and Jims stage freight began to go away faster and faster. They released a demo with 4 songs on a 45-rpm. They began to become known as part of the California scene, along with the grateful dead and Jefferson airplane. They began to be a house band for the whisky A-go-go, a popular nightclub. They also were signed to Columbia records, although they would never released anything on that label. One night when the doors were playing at the whisky Jim began to sing something he wrote that shocked many people in that building. In the song â€Å"the end† a song about the end of a relationship, Jim whispered † Father, yes son. I wanna kill you mother I wanna â€Å"ck you.† source 1, page 70. The doors were immediately fired from the whisky but a reporter wrote about it in the local paper and people were buzzing about the performance for weeks. Columbia records had dropped the band; The Doors thought this was the end for them. In fact it was the only the beginning. The Doors were signed to Electra records, two weeks after Columbia had dropped them. The Doors began recording their first album with  producer Paul Rothchild but many songs were left on the cutting board because they were not needed. Jim never wore shoes when he was recording; the studio was always lit in candles. They recorded their first album The Doors in two weeks. Never knowing it would be a complete success and put them into the media spotlight. After The Doors album was relased it had critical success and the fans were buying it, Jim was instantly a sex symbol. Their first single â€Å"Light My Fire† hit number 1, though it was 6 minutes long. The doors had become popular, after a year of touring and publicity, once appearing on the Ed Sullivan show, but not invited back because Jim sang a line he agreed he wouldn’t sing before they went on. They began to record their second album Strange Days, this album would become another hit. Touring had become a big part of Jim met a girl name Pam Zuribca also became a part of his life; he met Pam after a show. They began a long-term relationship. She once said once that Jim was her soul mate. The Doors began to record their third album Waiting For the Sun, Jim began to capture more of his personal side as he called himself â€Å"The Lizard King’, the album did increasingly well again even thought the album was hard to understand but the fans still bought the records then they released The Soft Parade. Often drunk or high Jim on stage would fall or stumble he had slurred speech or wouldn’t sing their popular songs. One night John said he was fed up with the band and said he was quitting but then showed up for practice the next day. The Doors were getting the reputation of an extremely rowdy band that couldn’t be controlled sometimes. Some of the doors fans were teenyboppers who just didn’t get the music they just knew they wanted Jim. Frustrated Jim said he was leaving the band; ray talked him into staying another six months. Jim had always wanted to be a poet he got to live out that fantasy by publishing a book called The Lords and New Creature Poems, which was originally started in high school. As Jim Morrison began to slip deeper and deeper into drugs and alcohol, the band continued to soar â€Å"touch me† a song from the soft parade reached number one in the untied states. In 1969 the doors went into the studio to record Morrison hotel, often very stoned Jim usually didn’t know what he was singing, The Doors and their producer Paul Rothchild got more and more fed up with the band, eventually leaving. Jim’s appearance had changed drastically, he was no  longer the tall thin sex symbol he was a fat guy with a beard, this scared away The Doors’ teenybopper fans. With this tour there would become a disaster Jim often was too drunk to even sing falling on stage like a clown. One night in Miami Jim in a drunken rage continued to say the f word on stage when a police officer threatened him he would go to jail if he used it again. Jim began to ask the audience if they would like to see his penis, the crowd went wild. There was a flash some say he flashed others say he didn’t. Jim was taken into police custody; The Doors were now banned in 6 states. Jim was arranged in October 1970, on the counts of lewd behavior, indecent exposure, public drunkenness, and open profanity, this was a media event, and Jim was proven guilty on all counts. He wasn’t going to be sentenced till the spring of 1971. The doors still released one more album with Jim Morrison L.a. Woman; the album came out in the summer of 1970. Jim said he was quitting The Doors and fled to Paris with Pam, Pam and Jim were never married though. He became exiled, lost weight and shaved his beard. These not known to him would be his last days. Though many people still don’t know if Jim Morrison really died of a heart attack on July 3, 1971 because only one doctor and Pam actually saw his body there was no autopsy. Could Jim still be alive, to escape his future jail time, or did he really die that day in a bathtub of a heart attack. Shortly after Jim died Pam died also of a heroin overdose. Jim has truly been missed, even though his music remains extremely influential today. His music and poetry will live on forever.

Methods of Evangelism Essay

The Intellectual Method of Evangelism referred to as â€Å"The Four Spiritual Laws† is best known as the widely used way of evangelism used by the popular college ministry known as Campus Crusade and was first published in 1957 by founder, Bill Bright in a pamphlet titled Have You heard of the four Spiritual Laws? In this publication, Bright simplifies the truths of the Gospel in an attempt to reach as many people as possible. What are known as Biblical truths are delivered as spiritual laws in order to assist people to recognize that just as we are governed by man’s laws on earth, there are also spiritual laws that govern the relationship between God and man. The four spiritual laws are: 1) God loves you; 2) Man is sinful and separated from God; 3) Jesus Christ is God’s only provision for man’s sin and 4) We must individually receive Jesus as Savior and Lord. (Bright, 2007) There are some very obvious advantages in using this method of evangelism. It is s imple and easy to follow and it starts off on a very positive note by explaining God’s love for mankind rather than addressing the sinful state that all of mankind is in before accepting Christ. Each point also has Scripture references to emphasis or proves that the laws are from God himself. The Four Spiritual Laws has been wildly successful in winning souls for Christ and the publication itself has sold over one hundred million copies and has been translated into all the major languages of the world making it a readily available resource for an evangelism tool. (Moo, 2002) There are however several disadvantages in choosing to use this method of evangelism. By electing to start these laws out on a positive note and addressing God’s love for mankind first instead of the sinfulness and our need of a Savior, one may get the false impression that he does not need to be saved. In addition with the references to scripture being taken out of context of could easily misunderstand the true meaning. One such example would be the first law, â€Å"God loves you† and the referenced Scripture John 3:16 and John 10:10. While God does love everyone, these Scriptures taken out of context fail to show that it is God’s nature and one of His  attributes to love us. And the recipient of the word may not understand that a loving God will still judge people for their worldly sins. The main concern with the Four Spiritual Laws is that although this pamphlet although Biblically correct mentions that a person can receive Christ through prayer. Prayer alone is not how you receive Christ. Prayer combined with Faith is what it takes to have a true conversion. (Robert H. Mounce, The Book of Revelation Revised, The New International Commentary on the New Testament, Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1977, 113.) Servant Evangelism The Relational Method of Evangelism referred to as Servant Evangelism is based on the ideal that Christians are to reach others by love, compassion and service while embracing a kind heart and a generous attitude along with a loving smile. The motivation that fuels servant evangelism is Jesus, himself especially when he was speaking to His disciples from the scriptures in Matthew Chapter 25 where he tell them that they are to feed the hungry, cloth and shelter the homeless, take care of the sick and visit those in prison as if they were serving Jesus. Servant evangelism is more about ‘doing’ the message of the Gospel than speaking it and drawing people to Christ through those actions. (Tarjanyi, 2013) There are some strong advantages to this sort of evangelism as the perception that non-Christians may have of Christianity may be altered and they may be more willing to remember a more positive image rather than negative one. The focus shifts to the selfless acts of compas sion and service they see these Christians performing in the name of Jesus. Many non-believers that witness Christians performing acts of service are very willing to acknowledge that there must be some other power that drives the Christian to do so. This opening can lead as an avenue to lead a person to Christ. On the other hand, by meeting the physical needs of a lost person and not addressing what may be causing those needs (which could easily be a sinful nature), one may run a risk of never reaching that individual for Christ. This is a definite disadvantage of servant evangelism. At all times, the servant must remain focused just like Jesus did and always turn the needs towards God and draw those in need to the real answer to all their needs. It can become very easy to get consumed with meeting needs and lose focus of the true mission which is to lead people a step closer to God. Evangelism Explosion Evangelism Explosion is a method of evangelism in which the leaders indicate that their principles are drawn directly from the Bible. This method is highly organized and is designed around the focal point â€Å"training those won to the Lord to win, and train, others†. (Davis, 2010) the technique utilizes a series of direct confrontational questions which emphasize a key point of the Gospel and the non-Christian is challenged to respond. Questions like, â€Å"Do you know for sure you are going to be with God in Heaven† or â€Å"If God asked you , ‘Why should God let you into Heaven?’ what would you say† are posed and the goal is to get the non-believer to open their mind and heart up to the Gospel message. There is a two-fold advantage to this approach of evangelism. First, this type of evangelism can place a direct challenge on the Christian to become more active in their own community and this aspect of evangelism makes Christians become very good at communicating the Gospel message effectively. The second advantage is that this approach directly confronts the non-believer with their sinful state and refuses to allow them any way to escape the salvation message. The non-Christian cannot dismiss Jesus as their moral teacher. They are left to decide if they will accept Him as Savior. The disadvantages of this confrontational method are also two-fold. Some may say that these sorts of trainings can become too rehearsed and sound memorized and scripted instead of from the heart. This may turn a non-Christian off to hearing the Gospel. The other issue is that the high pressure nature of the question and answer session may produce false converts. The process of going through a premeditated dialogue can leave much open to be criticized by many. Application of These Methods to Your Own Life The method of evangelism that works best for me is Servant Evangelism. Although I do see that there may be several responsibilities that are also attached to this approach, this is the best way that I have been able to be the actual hands and feet of Jesus to a lost and hurting world that may otherwise not be open to hearing the Gospel message. After reading and researching many of the other techniques, I find that servanthood best suits me. As we read in 1 Corinthians Chapter 12, God gifts us each uniquely. I feel that the service is a gift. Not everyone can serve with a grateful  heart. Servant Evangelism is how the Lord reached me and I am sure that impact is part of the reason I have such a deep connection to this technique. Matthew 25 has been adopted as my family’s scripture verse and is the basis of our family mission statement. I was once a ‘least of these’ and I will never forget how the Lord reached down and saved me. Telling people about what God is doing in my life is the greatest joy I have ever found. For the people God has placed in my life, servant evangelism is the perfect way to ‘show’ them the Gospel message. I am an active member of an international prison ministry. Time and time again, I have heard the participants on our retreats say that â€Å"people just don’t do these things†. I also get the privilege of serving special needs children and adults as well as traveling with a ministry that visits churches that are in conflict or struggling and every time the people see the people of God come together to serve, not out of our own power but from God’s power. It makes a great impact on many lives. I could not imagine living a life that was not in service to others. References BIBLIOGRAPHY Beale, G.K. The Book of Revelation. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999. The new Greek Testament Commentary. Bright, Bill. Have You Heard of the Four Spiritual Laws? Peachtree City: Campus Crusade, 2007. Davis, James D. â€Å"THE BASICS OF EVANGELISM EXPLOSION.† Sun Sentinel 25 June 2010 (updated): 4D. Judy, Tarjanyi. â€Å"Simple Acts of ‘Servant Evangelism’ Create Atmosphere for Church Growth.† Austin American Statesman 8 April 1995: E.1. CMG Corporate Services, Inc of behalf of itself and the Newspapers. Moo, Douglas J. Encountering the Book of Romans: A Theological Survey. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2002.

American Persona

A persona as commonly known to many people is a social role played by a character. With all the kind of immigration that continuously takes place in America it is not easy to clearly distinguish who is an American. An American persona in a general perspective refers to someone whose origin is America. In history an American refers to the Red Indians; now they are refered to according to the political nomenclature Native Americans. Ironically, they have been reduced to almost an extinct community in their own country. Is it possible for one to clearly define an Italian, a British or a German? The America we live in has a Paris in Texas, a Moscow in Idaho and a Birmingham in Alabama. Even bigger cities and states in the world have changed their old cities names to others like New York, and New Jersey. Several Asian and American countries have changed the names adopted during the colonial era to others which match their customs and traditions. This is not the case to American personalities. After a whole 200 year period of being a free Nation, America is really content to remain residing to the areas where their parents, grandparents and other relatives had left behind. They are not destined to come up with other names that are not American. When someone talks about an American it is almost obvious that an ethnic prefix will be added before the word American for instance: Italian American, Russian American and Polish American. The single ethnic group who do not use these prefixes include the one whose ancestors were originally from British. That is why it is rare to here that one is an English American. The United States of America is a land that is known for its richness in diversity and cultures. In American history the natives, settlers and immigrants have learned a lot and passed through several challenges here and there. Generalising the nation for specific characteristics may not be very simple. The reason as to why this is so is because this society has several other communities in it with which have their own distinct characteristics. Whereas the Native American society has a tendency of being hardy, the settlers introduced versatility in the utilization of America’s rich resources and the colonists are uniquely associated with the introduction of scope for restraint and amalgamation of the diverse nature of America. The other source of uniqueness of Americans include the size of the nation and its climatic changes; ranging from winter, autumn and summer. The variation of the geography of the region has a great impact on the ethnic communities in the region. If variety is the secret answer to spicy life then America has it. The range in diversity goes all the way from the Atlantic region up to the Pacific area. Americans are known to the whole world for the value and respect of their individuality. The kind of spirit they poses that can never be doubted in the eye of the storm of the worldwide contradiction. People of America embrace resilience and equality among themselves and even other people with whom they live. Even though they did not adopt these aspects as a result of suffering and forcefulness, but they learned them very fast in a quick and thorough way. Like they battled with American civil war and colonisation, they also fought to bring down racial differences with strength and vigour of character. Their decisions always relied on the fact that they respect the underlying unity of thought, deeds and actions. In regard to fearlessness, they believe that as a nation they establish their own destiny. They have never acted in fear when they want to speak up. They have in various circumstances voiced their values and opinions freely. The attribute of not fearing anyone makes them able to express their opinions regarding politics without fear and abide by the liberties bestowed upon them as a society by the US constitution without fear or favour. The fact that they are fearless makes them able to refrain from collecting class distinctions or conscience (Burnett et al. ) According to their concern attribute, they are friendly to everyone in nature and can take their friendship to the next level genuinely. That is why they take part as forerunners in the United Nations. On the attribute of being informal and realistic, Americans are most comfortable when they are informal; this is not only confined to dress code and manners, but to all aspects of their lives. They are known for being able to break the fetters and find their way to the rooftop. In terms of being realistic they may or may not assume that their acquaintances are also their close friends. It is obvious that their variation in English language is strange all over but this does not hinder people from accepting them the way they are. The differences in spelling and pronunciation make more sense. It is not easy for a person who is not born in America to develop a system that is distinctly American. America’s foreign policy affects each and every person in the world in terms of prices, taxes, supply of gasoline, and the lives of our soldiers also depends on how we associate with US. This country can bring hope to the lives of the poorest people in the world. It is because of their persona that they are able to respect the lives of others who are not even their own. Most American citizens believe in embracing their values, justice, fairness, democracy, a helping hand when there is need and hard work. Their values are applied from their households, to community and to the rest of the world. The middle path of foreign policy requires that people work together with their allies, reward individuals who share American values and join arms against hatred (Alan and Steve). It would not be right to say that the American persona needs to be changed and not adopted, yet it is embraced by all Americans and is composed of very good attributes that should apply to every other nation in the rest of the world. Americans may be guided by the fact that ‘time is money’, though when they decide to unwind, it is difficult to compare to any other. To them being punctual is a virtue and a form of professionalism and life is as easy as a personal one. They accept that they are materialistic, but accept it and do not shy away from that. Works Cited Rebbecca, Burnett. , Elizabeth, Foster. , and Judith, Stanford. American Persona: A creative approach to writing. Littleton, MA: Sundance Press. 1998. Print. Alan, Dobson and Steve, Mash. US Foreign policy since 1945. New York: Routledge Press. 2002. Print.

Voting and Ethical Issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Voting and Ethical Issues - Essay Example It also seeks to find out whether it is necessary for voters to present their ID in order to cast their votes (Griffith, 2008). In the field of voting, ethics it is important to determine whether a voter should vote or abstain. In cases where a voter is apathetic to the result of the election the voter, the voter should avoid. The voting ethics also determine how the citizens vote and how they should vote. From a moral perspective, voting is not just as ordering food from a menu. When we vote, it is like we are forcing one to everybody else. There are ethical principles that are used to govern how people behave in times of elections (Griffith, 2008). Voter identification laws are contentious because they touch one of the most important political rights. The laws relate to a simple policy that goes around difficult questions, and there arise many disagreements. One of the questions often asked is whether the voter ID affects the voter turnout and if it does, is it to prevent a specific any group of people from voting? In most nations, they advocate the integrity of election system to ensure a fair election and that legitimate vote counts and minimize cases of frauds during the election. Despite the advances in technology in the current democracy, there are cases of voter’s fraud that still arise. There is a resistance to using the use of an ID which can be a solution to this problem. Given the cases of voter fraud, and presentation of the voter's ID to allow one to vote, the majority of US citizens believe that they are required to show identification with a photo such as a driving license. Despite the fraud that occurred during elections, the US Attorney General says that the new voter ID laws were potential for racial bias.  

Coursework about Computers and the Law CW2 Essay

Coursework about Computers and the Law CW2 - Essay Example In his spare time, Jasper has also been hosting a web site from the Bank’s server which advocates violence and the political over throw of elected government in the UK. The Government Security services discover Jasper’s web site and want to spy on Jasper’s activities while he is hosting it, believing it will supply them with useful intelligence. One of the main issues that are raised in the above scenario is the issue of privacy. In order to be able to determine the legitimacy of the employers’ interception of Jasper’s emails it is necessary to consider the Human Rights Act 1998 and Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights 1950. It is also necessary to examine the rights of the government to be able to order the interception of emails. In this particular case justification could be based on issues of national security since Jasper is a hosting a website which advocates overthrowing the elected government and advocates violence. This will involve an examination of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 and the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000. This will also require an examination of the Data Protection Act 1998. In examining the rights of the employer to intercept email the issue of personal freedom is challenged. Craig (1999)1 was concerned that allowing employers to conduct electronic surveillance of employees through intercepting their emails could allow them access to private information about the employee, even if this was not the intended purpose of the monitoring. The case of Copland v United Kingdom [2007]2 demonstrates this issue nicely. In this case the complainant alleged that Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights 1950 had been violated by her employers monitoring of her email and internet usage as well as her telephone calls. The respondent argued that respect for her private life had not been

Contemporary Business Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Contemporary Business - Term Paper Example Business ethics concept has been used by many academic scholars to distinguish between successful and unsuccessful organizations. Academic scholars believe that business ethics can not only ensure organizational but fillip sustainable business growth also. Rationale behind Selecting Business Ethics as Contemporary Management Topic The study has selected business ethics in order to continue further analysis. Business ethics has emerged as an important management issue for companies in recent time. The study has selected business ethics in order to understand following learning outcomes: Many companies (read Nortel, Enron, Layman Brothers and others) have suffered the ill effect of poor business ethics in last two decades hence discussing contemporary issues related to business ethics can help the authour to gain knowledge about organizational sustainability. Business helps the organization to build sustainable representation in front of their stakeholders. Unethical business practice creates negative impact in the mind of both shareholders and stakeholders. In many cases it has been observed that government of a particular country takes legal action against organizations practicising unethical activities such as bankruptcy, fraud, misrepresentation of financial asset or fraud. Legal action against unethical organizations not only purturbs sustainability of them but negatively impacts shareholder’s interest. Studying business ethics will help author to understand importance of organizational sustainability in terms of financial perspective. Many companies of USA have understood importance of business ethis hence they have created ethical assistance lines for stakeholders to report ethical concern about business practice to them. Following diagram will show increase of concern related business ethics in recent times. (Source: Ferrell, Fraedrich, and Ferrell 222) Business Ethics There is a vast gap between ethics and self interest in the business practice. M any business executives emphasizes on self interest in order to fulfil personal prosperity instead of doing business for betterment of society. Objective of Business Ethics In 2003, Hooker has pointed out that main objective of business ethics is to create a guideline for companies to compete and sustain in the market without getting involved in financial fraud or any kind of deception. Importance of Business Ethics in Business Environment Reseach scholars have defined business ethics in multidimensional manner in order to cover broad spectrum of the topic. Hooker and other reaseach scholars have pointed out following guidelines for business ethics. Companies need to design a fair and transparent fair incentive and remuneration system for top level management executives in order to draw a clear picture of the company in front of share holders. Companies need to emphasize on maintaining interst of shareholders because they are the key drivers to maintain sustainibility of any organiz ation. Companies should implement transparent inter level business practices in order to refrain employees to commit fainancial fraud and perform in accordance with industry standards. Leading companies should not manipulate industry standards in order to create entry barrier for small firms. Companies should not involve in price discrimination because price discrimination not only perturbs industry equilibrium (read oligopolistic

Review of the Annual Report & Accounts regarding the financial Essay - 1

Review of the Annual Report & Accounts regarding the financial performance of the QE11 for the year ended 31 March 2013 - Essay Example The other part of the report is based on the factors that the QEII should consider when looking for sponsorship so that it remains competitive in the increasing competitive environment. The report is in three parts as discussed below. First, the improvement in the cash flow position is due to the increase in the operating surplus. QEII generates it revenue from the sale of the house occupancy, conference activities such as meetings and conferences and from the interest rates from their investments in other companies. The increase in the operating surplus was due to the increased marketing activities. The good marketing that the QEII did both at home and abroad lead to the whole centre being booked for the Olympic period to host Casa Italia representing the Olympic committee of Italy. Secondly, the increase in trade and other receivables lead to the increase in cash flow to the centre. This was because of the good measures of credit control management which were very effective during the financial year limiting the exposure to the risk of bad debts for the centre. Therefore, decrease in bad debts means that good amount of cash was received from the accounts receivables which lead to the increase in the cash flow position improvement (Harrison, 2001). The third is the increase in the provisions has lead to the improvement in the cash flow position. A provision is a form of receipt in the cash flow statements and therefore if any provision in center is increased, it increases its cash flow position. Hence the increase in the provisions has lead to the improvements in the cash flow statement The fourth factor that leads to the improvement in the cash flow position is the decrease in trade and other and other payables due after more than one year. Any decrease in the trade and other accounts payable leads to the improvement in the cash flow position as less cash will be paid out. . This ensures that little cash is paid out which

Short essay philosophy Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Short philosophy - Essay Example He believed in the ability of man to do good. His philosophy entailed the inability of man to be evil. Socrates held that all the evil that occurred in the world did so because of the ignorance of man. The exact dates of the birth of the Buddha have been a subject of debate among historians; however, he lived in India during the fifth century B.C. his philosophy is similar to that of Hinduism. He emphasized on the importance of gaining freedom from desire. This he believed, would grant man freedom from the cycle of life and death to which one was confined otherwise. Man’s salvation lay in a detachment from worldly affairs. seventeenth century. He believed in the rational nature of being and attempted to arrive at something that he would be able to label as the truth. He believed that thought was the one feature that was unique to man and defined him. The thoughts of a man were what made him what he was. Elizabeth of Bohemia was a contemporary and regular correspondent of Descartes. Her work in philosophy concerns the relationship between the mind and the body. This is related to the work that was produced by Descartes, who worked on the relationship between man and the thoughts that originate in his mind. She however, is critical of the divorce that Descartes effects between the body and the mind and places great emphasis on the effect that both have on each other. The philosophers that have been discussed here belong to different ages and nationalities. Their contributions to the field of philosophy, however, are great. Contemporary researchers and philosophers have been able to see the connections between these different ideologies and in them, man’s eternal quest to understand his own nature and position within the

Fatigue Risk Management in Aviation Maintenance Term Paper

Fatigue Risk Management in Aviation Maintenance - Term Paper Example Maintenance personnel, have to endure significant fatigue risks. However, there are several characteristics of aircraft maintenance that provide chances of reducing the hazards created by fatigue. In the first place, maintenance work should be internally rather than externally paced. Maintenance should not be performed under pressure. The maintainer conscious should be able to stop a task and consider aiming for accuracy rather than speed. Where possible, methods of performance of a maintenance task should be modified. For example, tasks cards can be modify and secondary inspections and operational functional checks introduced to serve as errors capturing barriers. Where maintenance organization has the flexibility to choose when certain maintenance tasks can be performed, it is necessary to schedule the most risk susceptible tasks at a time when employees are less likely to be fatigued. Finally, maintainers should rarely be required to travel across different time zones performing their duties. This assists in preventing aircraft lag and circadian rhythm disruptions, which are key considerations or flight, crew FRMS. Effective fatigue management requires partnerships with shared responsibility between the employers and the employees. Fatigue does not only originate from the workplace but also from the personal life of the employee. Personal factors that can lead to fatigue include social and family commitments, medical conditions and second jobs. Therefore, it is the employee’s responsibility to ensure that they have enough rest fit for duty before assuming for work. The employer has an obligation to ensure that working hours are reasonable, availability of rest break periods and adequate staffing. However, the International Federation of Airworthiness asserts that the responsibility to control working hours is not solely the mandate of the employer. Employees have a responsibility to take advantage of opportunities & facilities for rest sessions provided. Further, it is also an employee’s responsibility to plan and use the rest periods appropriately in order to reduce incurring fatigue.

Recommendation Letter for Studying at the Oxford University Essay

Recommendation Letter for Studying at the Oxford University - Essay Example Since his graduation, he is conducting researches under my direct supervision as I am his scientific advisor for past two years. His dissertation topic is based on institutional aspects of states of Central Asian states. We co-operate each other strongly while handling different scientific and educational issues. Sergey has shown great efficiency and accuracy in carrying out his responsibilities while working on joint scientific projects (like ‘World Political dynamics’). He also has an innovative and creative approach towards problem-solving. The qualities of responsible nature, positive energy and optimism have gained him respect from his colleagues. All these dynamic qualities have led Sergey to achieve steady and fast progress. Sergey has passed all his University examinations with an â€Å"A† grade marking. Sergey’s distinguished qualities have helped him to outperform students not only from his own academic group but also from the whole department. His academic achievements, especially in the scientific field, are worth mentioning. Sergey’s projects were always among the best in his academic group. The depth of analysis, precision and the logical conclusions of his scientific work have always brought him victory and recognition at different contests and conferences. Also, a number of his scientific works are extremely impressive. At present, ten of Sergey’s articles are published in Political Science publications. Two of the ten articles are published in scientific magazines registered by the SCC (Superior Certification Commission). Getting ten articles published at this early phase of career is a great achievement in itself. Now, under my supervision, he has written a new article, ‘Stateness problems: basic approaches to conceptualization’, which will be his eleventh published article.

Huxley, Plato Comparison on Education Essay Example for Free

Huxley, Plato Comparison on Education Essay In Plato’s Republic, Plato believed the state was responsible for the education of its citizens for the purpose of their individual enlightenment. Huxley, in his work Brave New World takes this part of Plato’s utopian society and perverts it in order to indoctrinate the citizens of his state. I will attempt to argue that Huxley uses education by the state to indoctrinate its citizens and ultimately undermine Plato’s theory on education by the state for individual enlightenment. The ways in which Huxley uses education to indoctrinate the individual are diverse. Music or rather hypnopaedic sound was used to indoctrinate the citizens while they slept (Kindle, Huxley, loc 385). Eugenics but more precisely the Bokanovsky Process is used along side with Podsnap’s Technique to create the individual. These processes combined allowed the state to alter embryos and make people into whatever the state desired (Kindle, Huxley, loc 84). The use of music to educate the youth was something Plato originally stated in his utopian society. He stresses that when people are young they are more susceptible to influence (Kindle, Plato, loc 8578). Huxley’s state does this as well and plays hypnopaedic sound (music) while the young are sleeping over and over again to indoctrinate them, and slowly alter their thoughts or make them remember certain things. The uses of hypnopaedic sound vary by tones and tongue but are ultimately used to create â€Å"social stability† which is another way of saying â€Å"control of the populace†. Hypnopaedic sound is used to make the citizens never try to fix anything or use old things, but buy new ones instead. One of the sounds for this type of indoctrination is â€Å"ending is better than mending, ending is better than mending† (Kindle, Huxley, loc 1328). This process of convincing people they need to buy things is a way of gaining contentment and satisfaction as well as benefitting the state by creating a consumer society. The saying or sound â€Å"every one belongs to every one else† is also used to create a society where everyone has sex with each other and there are no relationships. The sex is not for procreation but for entertainment seeing as the state creates the individual and regulates childbirth. Plato also favored this sharing in his Utopia but only for his guardian class of citizens. Huxley applied this to his whole society but the sharing is only in-between classes never outside of classes. Another sound to further indoctrinate is â€Å"Every one works for every one else. We can’t do without any one. Even epsilons are useful. We couldn’t do without Epsilons. Every one works for every one else. We cant do without any one†(Kindle, Huxley loc 951). This is a type of farce, seeing as not all the citizens of Huxley’s world perform the same tasks or duties. Hypnopaedic sound is also used to convince people to take soma (Kindle, Huxley loc 2699). â€Å"A gramme in time saves nine† and â€Å"One cubic centimeter cures ten gloomy sentiments† are some of the hypnopaedic sounds used (Kindle, Huxley loc 1140). The drug soma was developed when the government of Huxley’s society took over the pharmaceutical industry. Soma has no side effects except providing an escape for people away from their problems, anxieties or feelings (Kindle, Huxley, loc 1328). This is really another means of control and also perversion by Huxley, which is compounded by hypnopaedic sound. The sound â€Å"everybody’s happy now† is used to make people believe they are happy and if you believe you are happy, you are happy (Kindle, Huxley, loc 968). This form of perverted education by Huxley is how the state indoctrinates the individual but this is just a part of it. Huxley’s world state employs the method of the Bokanovsky’s Process to create or rather grow its citizens some thousands at a time (Kindle, Huxley, loc 84). This process combined with the Podsnap’s Technique allows the state to mold and create the individual into whatever the state dictates by using eugenics. Plato favored a process of eugenics also as a means to breed out imperfection. Huxley took this process to creation itself instead of modification through generations (Kindle, Plato, 1252). This is Huxley’s way of specialization, which Plato also talks about in his utopian educational system as a necessary way for the state to function (Kindle, Plato loc 4953). Huxley perverts this and takes it a step further and does not give the individual a choice in what their life may be. Citizens are grown in tubes and altered by means of chemicals, additives, and even gravitational forces (Kindle, Huxley, loc 170). By these alterations people cannot think or do outside of what their task or assigned job is by the states indoctrination. The citizen can only do what it is made to do by this process and cannot question it’s purpose. In Huxley’s world state everyone regardless of their class is completely content being what they are and nothing else. This is again because they cannot think outside of what they have been made and told to be by hypnopaedic sound and state modification. (Kindle, Huxley, loc 959). Huxley’s education by means of hypnopaedic sound and eugenics indoctrinates the citizens of his world state. This indoctrination keeps the people from questioning authority and the status quo and ultimately makes them slaves to Huxley’s world state. Huxley does a fine job in Brave New World of showing what can be possible after a great tragedy occurs and the people need someone to save them. This tragedy would then lead to drastic changes in the way people live and ultimately lead to a whole brave new world. Huxley’s Brave New World does not seem possible in the actual world. Brave New World is more of a cautionary tale of what if and the totalitarian state. The real world is to globalized now and states are interdependent upon one another but hey what if?

Subordinate work Essay Example for Free

Subordinate work Essay This has actually been socially recognized as a global repetition of proposals that later on endorsed the promotion of Canadian women in leadership to better disseminate the importance of their gender role in an ethnic and culturally diverse society. Canada has therefore recognized the efforts of women in a new economy build up of a diverse talent pool that sees accomplishments across presentations at public forums and media communications. Further, in the educational fields, despite being less motivated in studies relative to male-dominated professions like natural sciences, engineering and mathematics, the women folk continue to slowly dominate a smattering of educational endeavors which in the previous years were considered male dominated. The benefits attached to these fields are slowly embraced to leverage with respect for the gender differences among employees. We have seen the efforts of Canadian women who take tremendous strides in their educational attainment and become members of the legitimate professional workforce. Although a majority of around 70% according to the Status of Women (2000) is still in occupations such as teaching, nursing and related health occupations, their representation have slowly increased in professional administrative and managerial positions. Adams has endorsed the full professional recognition and legislation that completely overhaul the history of labeling women’s professions as subordinate work. Further, the recognition of women in various fields of science acknowledges Canadian women’s interest to work in the community for economic development. Through development organizations that have mushroomed around in Canada, women are given the opportunity to learn new skills and share their experience with others in an effort to uplift their femininity and promote a social and economic change for the female gender. With a commitment aimed at an economic independence the Canadian Women’s Foundation work in an effort to promote equality and eliminate poverty among women. Organizational leaders have realized that improving the lives of women and their families is an initial effort in promoting a socially relevant change the uplift the lives of women for the betterment of the general society. Works Cited Canada. Status of Women 2000. Roscoe, Will, Ladd, Edmund (Eds. ). (1999). The Zuni Man-Woman in Life. New Mexico: University Press. Adams, Tracy. (2003). Professionalization, Gender and Female-Dominated Professions: Dental Hygiene in Ontario. The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology 40. Pierson, Ruth R. and Cohen, Marjorie G. (1995). Canadian Women’s Issues: Bold Visions. Canada: James Lorimer.

Individual Differences A Brief Overview Psychology Essay

Individual Differences A Brief Overview Psychology Essay A person differing from others is understandable, but how and why a person differs is less clear and is therefore a subject of the study of individual differences (Revelle, 2000). Individual differences are the differences among individuals, in regards to a single characteristic or number of characteristics, which in their totality distinguish one individual from another and make oneself a unique individual (Mangal, 2007). Characteristics that define individual differences can be classified into four main categories: Learning Style, Aptitude, Personality and Emotional Intelligence. 1.2 Learning Style Learning Style refers to the idea that every individual is different in regard to what manner of coaching or study is most useful for them (Pashler, et al., 2008). Some learn best by hearing information, while others see and/or write down information (Cherry, 2012). According to David Kolb; learning involves the gaining of abstract concepts, which are the intangible ideas that can be applied fluidly in a variety of situations, leading to knowledge (McLeod, 2013). Kolbs experience-based learning style theory is a four stage learning cycle in which effective learning can only be seen when an individual is able to accomplish all four stages of the cycle (McLeod, 2013). The cycle consists of: Concrete Experience Æ’Â   Reflective Observation Æ’Â   Abstract Conceptualization Æ’Â   Active Experimentation (McLeod, 2013). Concrete Experience: A new experience or situation is encountered, or a reinterpretation of an existing experience. Reflective Observation: Surveillance of others or developing interpretations about ones own knowledge/experience. Abstract Conceptualization: Daydreaming/Intuition/Reflection leads to a new idea, or a variation of an existing abstract concept learners create theories to explain observations. Active Experimentation: The learner applies its knowledge/experience/observations to the world around them in real time to see its outcome using theories to explain/answer problems and make proper judgments. 1.3 Aptitude The term aptitude is sometimes treated the same as abilities, particularly when the focus is on prediction of performance in other settings or occasions (Kyllonen Gitomer, 2002). Abilities are cognitive or mental characteristics that affect ones potential to learn or to perform, whereas aptitude includes any number of individual-differences factors that influence ones willingness or chances of learning or performing successfully (Kyllonen Gitomer, 2002). Even Aptitude and Intelligence Quotient (IQ) tend to relate in view of human mental ability, however, they are in fact quite the opposite. IQ sees intelligence as being a single measurable characteristic affecting all mental ability, whereas aptitude breaks mental ability down into many different characteristics which are supposed to be more or less independent of each other (wikia.com, 2013). Similarly skills, abilities and aptitudes are related but are separate descriptions of what a person can do, and thus, should not be conflated (wikia.com, 2013). Skills describe what a person has learned to do in the past (wikia.com, 2013); abilities describe what a person can do now (wikia.com, 2013); aptitudes, however, describe a persons potential to learn from the past and apply its learning in the future (wikia.com, 2013). All these describe what and how a person can learn to do something effectively. 1.4 Personality Personality explains the unique characteristics of individuals, as well as relationships among groups of people (Cherry, 2011). A person is able to stand out in the crowd due its personality; this is made up of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in an individual (Cherry, 2011). Although some outer forces can influence how certain characteristics are expressed, personality originates from inside an individual. While a few characteristics of personality may change with age, personality is likely to remain somewhat reliable during the whole life (Cherry, 2011). The major characteristics of personality are (Cherry, 2011): Personality is Organized and Consistent: People tend to communicate certain features of their personality in various circumstances and their responses are usually stable. Personality is Psychological, but is influenced by Biological Needs and Processes: While an individuals personality might lead him/her to be calm in normal situations, but when threatened or provoked it might lead him/her to be more aggressive. Personality causes behaviors to happen: People respond to others and objects in their surroundings based on their personality. From private preferences to choice of profession, every facet of their existence is affected by their personality. Personality is displayed through thoughts, feelings, behaviors and many other ways: An individuals presence/existence all together releases energy of good or bad vibes depending on how they connect with all that encompasses their surroundings. 1.5 Emotional Intelligence Emotional Intelligence (EI) is the ability to process emotions (Toyota, 2011); it is the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings, to differentiate among them, and to use this information to guide ones thinking and action (Salovey Grewal, 2005). A four-branch model, proposed by Mayer and Salovey, identifies EI as a set of four related abilities: Perceiving, Using, Understanding, and Managing Emotions (Salovey Grewal, 2005). Perceiving Emotions: The ability to detect and interpret emotions in faces, pictures, voices, and cultural artifacts. It also includes the ability to identify ones own emotions. Using Emotions: The ability to control emotions to smooth the progress of various cognitive activities, such as thinking and problem solving. Understanding Emotions: The ability to understand emotion language and to value complex affairs among emotions. Furthermore, it includes the ability to recognize and describe how emotions develop over time, such as how shock can turn into grief. Managing Emotions: Consists of the ability to manage and normalize emotions in both ourselves and in others. Task for M1: 2.0 Choose a psychometric test for each type that would yield the most valid and reliable results in the workplace. 2.1 Psychometric Test A Brief Overview Psychometric tests are structured assessments that aim to measure, without bias, characteristics of an individuals mental capacity, or aspects of their personality (Price, 2010). Business employers use it as it offers greater objectivity, reliability and validity than interviews; and also helps provide additional information that helps the employer to create an overall profile of employees and to foresee how they will function in the workplace (HJB.com, 2013). The tests are homogeneous, which means that all applicants sit the same assessment and are scored according to the same criteria, no matter where or when the test is completed (HJB.com, 2013). However, taking a wide range of tests depends upon individuals needs as to how they approach or want to approach their personal development (Becker, 2011). Focusing on improving weak areas of performance can lead to great progress in achieving objectives when strengths are identified and developed (Becker, 2011). Therefore, psychometric t esting can assist in choosing the approach that will deliver the most benefit. 2.2 Types of Psychometric Tests Psychometric assessments fall under two groups. The first measures and evaluates an individuals ability to understand verbal/written words or their ability to reason with numerical figures (Farrington, 2007), or to follow directions as asked (Price, 2010). The second measures personality traits through personality tests (Farrington, 2007), assessing everything from motivation to values, from personality inclinations to working preferences (Price, 2010). In the world of employment, the choice of test is extremely vital since such tests are used: during the recruitment phase to select the best candidate, or to help select candidates for career advancement (Price, 2010). As a result, tests are gradually more customized to the jobs they are used for. 2.3 Learning Style Psychometric Test The Learning Styles Questionnaire (LSQ) was developed to determine an individuals preferred learning style (PsychPress.com, 2013). There are four learning styles (Watts, 2007): Activist: Engage themselves fully in all new experiences. Reflector: Like to pause and take time to evaluate their experiences from every angle. Theorist: Like to adapt what they see into their own words in order to create their own theories, which are accurate but can appear overly complicated. Pragmatist: Are eager to try out fresh ways of doing things to see if they can be put into practice and yield results. Most people prefer certain learning styles over others. As a result, their preference tends to misrepresent the learning procedure as such that greater emphasis is placed on some stages to the disadvantage of the other stages (PsychPress.com, 2013). Therefore, LSQs provide a key to understanding these different preferences. People gain learning styles through repetition of successful strategies and tactics while they put an end to those that are not, which leads to the development of preferences for different behavioral patterns that become habitual (PsychPress.com, 2013). Therefore, LSQs help people to learn effectively about themselves so that they may be saved from inapt learning experiences. A thorough understanding of learning styles through LSQs enable the tailoring of education and training programs to suit an individual or group (PsychPress.com, 2013). Particular forms of learning to which individuals respond can be identified through LSQs which aids in improving individual a nd group performance. This also makes training and development as well as other learning activities valuable and less challenging for the participants, and thus helps in reducing training costs by saving valuable time (PsychPress.com, 2013). 2.4 Aptitude Psychometric Test Aptitude tests attempt to measure trait intelligence (IQ) and cognitive ability in individuals from the indication of their efficiency in processing information (PsychometricInstitute.com, 2013). Intelligence is either fluid or crystallized (PsychometricInstitute.com, 2013). Crystallized intelligence involves verbal or language-based accumulated knowledge developed mainly through education and other life experiences (PsychometricInstitute.com, 2013). However, fluid intelligence indicates adaptability and flexibility in the face of new experiences that do not allow automated reasoning (PsychometricInstitute.com, 2013). An example would be where logic is needed in identifying an odd shape from a number of shapes in an odd-one-out type question. Since an individuals aptitude is complex, Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT) is used. It is a widely accepted method of online psychometric testing that includes aptitude tests, reasoning tests, verbal reasoning tests and numerical reasoning tests (PsychometricInstitute.com, 2013). Although the programming, testing properties and science behind CAT are quite complex, the course, as experienced by the candidate, is not (PsychometricInstitute.com, 2013). Even though the test is taken online, it has many advantages compared to written tests such as: reduced administration time, reduced test-taking time, increased reliability for measuring applicants aptitude, trims down the quantity of items in online psychometric tests by optimally customizing items to the candidate, practice for CAT-based tests is identical to practicing traditional online psychometric tests, all of it is computer-based and administered online, thus, practicing for these types of psychometric tests is considered idea l (PsychometricInstitute.com, 2013). 2.5 Personality Psychometric Test Personality tests are assessments which assess an individuals somewhat stable behavioral trends and preferences within an occupational perspective (PsychPress.com, 2013). Such tests also require the least preparation (PsychPress.com, 2013). Personality tests are based on behavior mainly due to the indirect and complex nature of an individuals personality (PsychPress.com, 2013). If used appropriately, these tests can be extremely helpful in improving knowledge of ones self and other people. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a personality test designed to indicate the psychological types of an individuals personality, its strengths and preferences (Cherry, 2012) so as to find out the reasons for individual differences (Price, 2012). MBTI aims to let candidates discover and understand more about their own personalities which includes; likes, dislikes, strengths, weaknesses, job preferences and compatibility with others (Cherry, 2012). One other thing worth noting is that the questions in these tests have no allocated correct answer (Price, 2012) because no one personality type is best or better than any other one (Cherry, 2012). This test isnt a means to look for dysfunction or abnormality, but rather help individuals learn more about themselves (Cherry, 2012). The test is made up of four different scales (Cherry, 2012): Extraversion (E) Introversion (I): Extraverts are more open and lively, they are more social, and they are filled with energy after spending time with other people. Introverts are more into themselves; they tend to think a lot, they enjoy meaningful social interactions, and are filled with energy after spending time alone. Sensing (S) Intuition (N): This scale indicates how people collect information from their surroundings. Individuals, who pay a great deal of attention to reality, especially to what they can learn from their own senses, are sensing. Those who are intuitive consider stuff like patterns and impressions. Thinking (T) Feeling (F): This scale focuses on decisions people make that are based on information they gather through their sensing or intuition functions. People are more into thinking when they stress on facts and objectives data. People who put greater emphasis on feelings arrive at a conclusion based on people and emotions. Judging (J) Perceiving (P): This scale is about how people tend to deal with the outside world. People who like structure and firm decisions are more judging. People who are more open, flexible and adaptable, are more perceiving. Due to MBTI ease of use, it has become one of the most popular psychological instruments. According to the Myers Briggs Foundation, the MBTI meets accepted standards of reliability and validity (Cherry, 2012). 2.6 Emotional Intelligence Psychometric Test Emotional Intelligence (EI) tests help evaluate several aspects of an individuals EI and suggest ways to improve it (Queendom.com, 2013), so that they can understand the level of their relation with emotions (Agarwal, 2007). It helps an individual to understand themselves better in order to deal better with themselves, and know what to avoid and what not to (Agarwal, 2007). The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) is the most often used test of emotional intelligence (Daniels, 2010). This test focuses on emotions rather than intellectual skills (Daniels, 2010). MSCEIT comprises items such as to; identify the emotion in given pictures of peoples faces, select which emotion can help achieve particular tasks, understand the way emotions interact and blend among them, and to recognize how they can use their emotions in difficult social situations (Daniels, 2010). The MSCEIT measures emotional intelligence in terms of four key competencies, including an individuals ability to: (i) Recognize their own and others emotions, (ii) Generate and use emotions in problem solving, (iii) Understand emotions and how emotions may change, and (iv) Manage their own and others emotions (Onetest.com, 2010). It has been confirmed that people with high EI prove to be thriving in life than those with lower EI, even if their Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is average (Queendom.com, 2013). This is because people with higher EI are better able to express their emotions in a healthy way, and better able to understand the emotions of colleagues; therefore, leading to better work relationships and performance. In the workplace, it leads to successful leadership, increased productivity and higher customer satisfaction (Onetest.com, 2010). On a personal level, it ultimately leads to a more successful and fruitful life. Task for P2: 3.0 Assess the usefulness of psychometric instruments in the workplace. 3.1 Psychometric Tests As mentioned in M1 Task; Psychometric tests include personality profiles, reasoning tests, motivation questionnaires, and ability assessments. These tests try to provide objective data for otherwise subjective measurements. For example, if you want to determine someones attitude, you can ask the person directly, observe the person in action, or even gather observations about the person from other people. However, all of these methods can be affected by personal bias and perspective. By using a psychometric test, you make a more objective and impartial judgment. Since objectivity is the key to using these assessments, a good psychometric test provides fair and accurate results each time its given. To ensure this, the test must meet these three key criteria: Standardization: The test must be based on results from a sample population thats truly representative of the people wholl be taking the test. You cant realistically test every working person in a country. But you can test a representative sample of that group, and then apply the results to the specific people whom you test. Also, a standardized test is administered the same way every time to help reduce any test bias. By using a standardized test, you can compare the results with anyone whose characteristics are similar to those of the sample group. Reliability: The test must produce consistent results, and not be significantly influenced by outside factors. For instance, if youre feeling stressed when you take the test, the test results shouldnt be overly different from times when you were excited or relaxed. Validity: This is perhaps the most important quality of a test. A valid test has to measure what its intended to measure. If a test is supposed to measure a persons interests, then it must clearly demonstrate that it does actually measure interests, and not something else thats just related to interests. 3.2 Psychometric Tests in the Workplace Psychometric tests have become a well established tool in the workplace, particularly in large organizations where 70% claim to use some form of psychometric measure as part of the recruitment process. They are also increasingly used for career planning, team building, management development, counseling and succession planning. Many individuals also use them to evaluate their own attributes and as evidence for potential employers. 3.3 Usefulness of Psychometric Tests Workplace Psychometric test is useful in: Selection of Personnel: By applying psychometric tests when hiring workers, we are able to judge their competency core objectively. For example, here at Galactic Space, when we were hiring someone for monitoring gaming, we interviewed a person named Raees Gul. He applied for the post of working as a waiter, but when we interviewed him and gave him a set of questionnaires which consisted of different questions on the different departments of the lounge, we concluded he was better at gaming. Task Allocation: It has great use in task allocation of employees when we gain in-depth knowledge of their strength and weaknesses, through which we can easily judge which area they would work best at. Finding Personality: Having detailed knowledge of employees personality helps us in understanding how to communicate with them and deal with them during various circumstances. Task for D1: 4.0 Make justified recommendations for the use of two types of measures in making business decisions. 4.1 Decision-Making Predicament The present-day world presents complex decision-making challenges, be it in a business environment or day-to-day personal situations. As were discussing issues related to a business environment, we will focus on decisions that are related to the various dilemmas in the business world. For example; decisions made during staff selection and training, since companies request for specific profiles with precise individual qualities and knowledge about competencies related to a specific field; or decisions related to making an investment with high risk but with high returns, since shareholders are looking forward to high profits. 4.2 Aptitude Business Decisions Since we mentioned in P1 that every human being is complex, therefore their aptitudes are also complex. Employment specialists, that are part of the Human Resource Department, mostly use aptitude tests to determine whether someone is a good fit for a job or promotion, have the ability to adapt to a new work environment and culture, and are able to process information systematically. It is very important because to understand aptitude is to understand their mental and physical attributes. For example; a person who has good analytical skills, the will to take justified risks and bear pressure, can well be suited in the finance department (provided that he has a finance background). Since peoples ability to process information is limited; therefore, knowing that they can adopt a variety of heuristics or rules of thumb when making decisions can help solve business problems, assist in product choice and consumption option, and most importantly, their personal lives. A heuristic is a menta l shortcut that allows people to solve problems and make decisions fast and efficiently (Cherry, 2011). Thus, this helps shorten decision-making time and allow people to function without constantly stopping to think about the next course of action (Cherry, 2011). Although heuristics are helpful in many situations, they can also lead to biases in decision making. Nevertheless, how they influence business and consumer decisions in everyday life is golden. 4.3 Emotional Intelligence in Business Decisions In a world where people are facing unparalleled hardships, their emotions are spilling out in uncontrollable measures. Since experts claim that EI could be responsible for as much as 80% of any success (StarlightPsych, 2013); therefore, many businesses are interested in the EI of their workforce because understanding the EI of future employees can have clear benefits. It can be the difference between a successful and a risky hire (StarlightPsych, 2013); the latter should obviously be avoided to prevent a business, especially a big one, from facing dire consequences. Conducting EI tests also helps evaluate important aspects of work-related activities where the management can know beforehand on; how to deal with emotionally charged situations where stress and anger is involved, the manner of workforce relating themselves to their superiors and colleagues, the ability to learn, follow leadership, and so on. We also mentioned in M1 that work relationships and performance are directly rel ated to the EI of the workforce. Every human being has emotions, and motivation plays a large role in pushing emotions to its limit. Therefore, when management tap into the positive energy of EI, it can not only make work life easier for them and the workforce, but also lead to a better connection with top-level management through; top notch performance, lowered employee absenteeism, improved productivity and efficiency, and last but not the least, increased overall profits. 4.4 Conclusion Although there is no right answer as to which type of measure can lead to good or near-perfect business decisions, employing some or all measures can at least reduce bias in the results. For example, in a situation where a person seems to have a low IQ does not make him/her a dumb person, since that person might have a better EI, or even a great personality that makes him a much better person when it comes to ethics. Its a never-ending battle between right and wrong, true and false, dumb and smart, etc. All we can hope is that all this brings human beings closer together, regardless of their psychoanalytic assumptions.

Identity Crisis in Don Delillos White Noise Essay -- White Noise Essa

Don Delillo's White Noise is a novel set in twentieth century Middle America. The story follows the life and journey of Jack Gladney, a teacher of Hitler studies and his family through their lives invaded by white noise, the constant murmur of American consumerism. The narrative follows these characters as they struggle to live life distracting themselves from their sense of reality. White Noise explores a host of character's deep underlying fears and uncertainties that keep them from discovering and revealing their true identities. The first character I would like to discuss is the protagonist, Jack Gladney. It seems as if Jack distracts himself from discovering his own identity, without it life is a mystery to him and it makes death even more mysterious. As Jack talks to Murray about death, he states that The deepest regret is death. The only thing to face is death. This is all I think about. There's only one issue here, I want to live. (270) Jack is obsessed with his fear of the unexpected. He explains to Murry that death does not make his life more satisfying, but only filled with anxiety. Jack does not want to know any information predicting his own demise, he is afraid of finding out his own "code", as in the case of his medical report that forecasts his death. There are many indications of Jack's identity crisis throughout the story-- a more prominent one is that of his identity as a teacher of Hitler studies. It seems as if Jack is fascinated with a man so in touch with death, and when teaching he hides behind large dark glasses and... ...sulting in death, Murry considers the idea that one can become an instrument of death, by taking death into one's own hands. Murry may mask his character in a way to deflect death, but he is not afraid to take interest in the mystical concepts such as religion and science, the two sources that can cause and possibly cure death itself. Fear in a person's life can cause him or her to withdraw themself, or hide from certain situations thought to be associated with his or her underlying anxieties. In White Noise, the fear of death is a prominent factor that provokes the identity crisis these characters face. It is not until a person can face, and possibly overcome, these internal fears that one can obtain his or her true identity and understand truly who he or she really is.

evilmac darkmac Darkness, Evil and Tragedy in Shakespeares Macbeth :: Free Macbeth Essays

Macbeth: Darkness, Evil and Tragedy Macbeth is a play full of darkness, evil, and tragedy. It is the story of a man who goes against his conscience and commits a horrible deed which leads to his destruction and loss of everything he has around him. This includes the relationship he has with his wife, Lady Macbeth. In the end, he can blame no one but himself. At the beginning of the play, Macbeth and Lady Macbeth have a very strong relationship and this deteriorates later. Act 1 Scene 5 is a key scene which shows just how close Macbeth and Lady Macbeth were at the beginning of the play; it shows their original relationship. Macbeth has written a letter to Lady Macbeth telling her of everything and in this letter states algo that she helped him to get everything for him. The following speech where Lady Macbeth doubts that he can get to the title of King "he is too full of the milk of human kindness" shows just how close they were. It establishes the fact that she knew him so well, she knew what he was like and it emphasises the closeness of their relationship. She speaks of how he has enough ambition but not enough courage. His "overiding ambition" is not enough. When Macbeth and Lady Macbeth speak, they speak to eachother with such closeness and bond; he calls her his "dearest chuck", his "partner of greatness". She knows that he is too weak to do anything and states her position in the murder "leave the rest to me". In Act 1, Scene 7 establishes the force and power that Lady Macbeth posseses over her husband. Upon hearing of Macbeth's decision not to kill Duncan, she is outraged and starts to work her force and power upon him. She knows where he is most vulnerable and attacks him at his weak spot. She strikes him at his manhood and courage. This of course works on Macbeth and she knows that it will. No one calls Macbeth a coward. She says that he is a coward and attacks his manliness. "to be more than what you are, you would be so much more the man". She challenges his love for her and says that she would rather "dash the brains out" of her own child than break such a promise as Macbeth has to her. Whether she was bluffing, the imagery that Macbeth would have had in his mind at this point would have been frightening. To have the brains "dashed out" of his own child.

Liberation Thought and Bhakti-yoga Essay -- Liberation Ideology, Hind

Liberation is a prominent ideology well stressed throughout the formation and development of history Hinduism. In general, the religious school of Indian philosophy is multiform with different tendencies, but mostly focused on explaining critical issues such as the phenomenon of nature, the meaning of life, the source of human suffering, and the path, which is the way to help people liberation from the suffering of the life. Like any other ancient Indian religions’ thoughts, Hinduism also aims at the ultimate liberation. This is well expounded within its philosophies and practices. For Hinduism, the ultimate liberation is returning to Braham. According to Bhagavad Gita, there are three ways of practice that lead to liberation. ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¬. These are janna-yoga (the way of knowledge), bhakti- yoga (the practice of devotion) and karma-yoga (the course of action). In other words, one can practice any of these methods to achieve union with God. This paper I will analyze some important aspects of bhakti-yoga and how it can lead one to attain ultimate liberation—return to Atman. In doing this investigation, I hope to help the reader broaden their knowledge on liberation in Hinduism. As Radhakrishnan says we may climb the mountain from different paths, but the view from the summit is identical for all. II. What does liberation means in Hinduism? The moksha word is often translated as salvation or liberation. In Longman Dictionary, liberation is defined as the act of freeing prisoners, a city, a country, etc. According to Hinduism, moksha, mukti from the cycle of suffering and rebirth (samsara) is the supreme goal of human existence. Much has been written about the nature and path of release. True liberation means freeing of an individ... ... to them, take care to bless them with Mukti also.† In other words, if one loves God and serves Him with wholeheartedly, he or she will be granted with moksha, liberation. Works Cited Embree, Ainslie Thomas, Stephen N Hay, and William Theodore De Bary. Sources of Indian Tradition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988. Fort, Andrew O, and Patricia Y Mumme. Living Liberation in Hindu Thought. Albany, NY: State Univerasity of New York Press, 1996. Huyler, Stephen P. Meeting God: Elements of Hindu Devotion. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999. Longman Dictionary of American English: A Dictionary for Learners of English. New York, N.Y.: Longman, 1983. Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. New York: Macmillan, 1958. TyaÌ„giÌ„sÃŒ aÌ„nanda. Aphorisms on the Gospel of Divine Love; Or, NaÌ„rada Bhakti SuÌ„tras,. Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1967.

Nursing: Epidemiology and Health

U N I T Concepts of Health and Disease arly peoples were considered long-lived if they reached 30 years of age—that is, if they survived infancy. For many centuries, infant mortality was so great that large families became the tradition; many children in a family ensured that at least some would survive. Life expectancy has increased over the centuries, and today an individual in a developed country can expect to live about 71 to 79 years. Although life expectancy has increased radically since ancient times, human longevity has remained fundamentally unchanged.The quest to solve the mystery of human longevity, which appears to be genetically programmed, began with Gregor Mendel (1822–1884), an Augustinian monk. Mendel laid the foundation of modern genetics with the pea experiments he performed in a monastery garden. Today, geneticists search for the determinant, or determinants, of the human life span. Up to this time, scientists have failed to identify an aging gene th at would account for a limited life span. However, they have found that cells have a ? nite reproductive capacity. As they age, genes are increasingly unable to perform their functions.The cells become poorer and poorer at making the substances they need for their own special tasks or even for their own maintenance. Free radicals, mutation in a cell’s DNA, and the process of programmed cell death are some of the factors that work together to affect a cell’s functioning. I E CHAPTER Concepts of Health and Disease Georgianne H. Heymann Carol M. Porth 1 ogy. There has been an increased knowledge of immune mechanisms; the discovery of antibiotics to cure infections; and the development of vaccines to prevent disease, chemotherapy to attack cancers, and drugs to control the manifestations of mental illness.The introduction of the birth control pill and improved prenatal care have led to decreased birth rates and declines in infant and child mortality. The bene? ts of scienc e and technology also have increased the survival of infants born prematurely and of children with previously untreatable illnesses, such as immunode? ciency states and leukemia. There also has been an increase in the survival of very seriously ill and critically injured persons of all age groups.Consequently, there has been an increase in longevity, a shift in the age distribution of the population, and an increase in age-related diseases. Coronary heart disease, stroke, and cancer have now replaced pneumonia, tuberculosis, and diarrhea and enteritis—the leading causes of death in the 1900s. This chapter, which is intended to serve as an introduction to the book, is organized into four sections: health and society, historical perspectives on health and disease, perspectives on health and disease in individuals, and perspectives on health and disease in populations.The chapter is intended to provide the reader with the ability to view within a larger framework the historical aspects of health and disease and the relationship of health and disease to individuals and populations, and to introduce the reader to terms, such as etiology and pathogenesis, that are used throughout this text. HEALTH AND SOCIETY HEALTH AND DISEASE: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE The In? ence of Early Scholars The Nineteenth Century The Twentieth Century The Twenty-First Century PERSPECTIVES ON HEALTH AND DISEASE IN INDIVIDUALS Health Health and Disease as States of Adaptation Disease Etiology Pathogenesis Morphology Clinical Manifestations Diagnosis Clinical Course PERSPECTIVES ON HEALTH AND DISEASE IN POPULATIONS Epidemiology and Patterns of Disease Prevalence and Incidence Morbidity and Mortality Determination of Risk Factors The Framingham Study The Nurses’ Health Study Natural History Levels of Prevention Evidence-Based Practice and Practice Guidelines e concepts of what constituted health and disease at the beginning of the last century were far different from those of thi s century. In most of the industrialized nations of the world, people now are living longer and enjoying a healthier lifestyle. Much of this has been made possible by recent advances in science and technol- T Health and Society Everyone who is born holds dual citizenship in the kingdom of the well and in the kingdom of the sick. Although we all prefer to use only the good passport, sooner or later each of us is obligated, at least for a spell, to identify ourselves as citizens of that other place. 3 4 UNIT I Concepts of Health and Disease After completing this section of the chapter, you should be able to meet the following objectives: ? Describe the concepts used to establish belief systems within a community and the effects on its health care practices ? Identify a disease believed to be generated by speci? c emotions and the characteristics ascribed to it ? Explain how mythologizing disease can be detrimental to individuals in a society There is a long history that documents the concern of humans for their own health and well-being and that of their community.It is not always evident what particular beliefs were held by early humans concerning health and disease. Still, there is evidence that whenever humans have formed social groups, some individuals have taken the role of the healer, responsible for the health of the community by preventing disease and curing the sick. In prehistoric times, people believed that angry gods or evil spirits caused ill health and disease. To cure the sick, the gods had to be paci? ed or the evil spirits driven from the body. In time, this task became the job of the ealers, or tribal priests. They tried to pacify the gods or drive out the evil spirits using magic charms, spells, and incantations. There also is evidence of surgical treatment. Trephining involved the use of a stone instrument to cut a hole in the skull of the sick person. It is believed that this was done to release spirits responsible for illness. Prehistoric h ealers probably also discovered that many plants can be used as drugs. The community as a whole also was involved in securing the health of its members.It was the community that often functioned to take care of those considered ill or disabled. The earliest evidence of this comes from an Old Stone Age cave site, Riparo del Romio, in southern Italy. There the remains of an adolescent dwarf were found. Despite his severe condition, which must have greatly limited his ability to contribute to either hunting or gathering, the young man survived to the age of 17 years. He must have been supported throughout his life by the rest of the community, which had incorporated compassion for its members into its belief system. Communities such as this probably existed throughout prehistory; separated from each other and without any formal routes of communication, they relied on herbal medicines and group activity to maintain health. Throughout history, peoples and cultures have developed their he alth practices based on their belief systems. Many traditions construed sickness and health primarily in the context of an understanding of the relations of human beings to the planets, stars, mountains, rivers, spirits, and ancestors, gods and demons, the heavens and underworld.Some traditions, such as those re? ected in Chinese and Indian cultures, although concerned with a cosmic scope, do not pay great attention to the supernatural. Over time, modern Western thinking has shed its adherence to all such elements. Originating with the Greek tradition—which dismissed supernatural powers, although not environmental in? uences—and further shaped by the In? uences of zodiac signs on the human body. (Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine) ourishing anatomic and physiologic programs of the Renaissance, the Western tradition was created based on the belief that everything that needed to be known essentially could be discovered by probing more deeply and ever more minu tely into the ? esh, its systems, tissues, cells, and DNA. 3 Through Western political and economic domination, these health beliefs now have powerful in? uence worldwide. Every society has its own ideas and beliefs about life, death, and disease. It is these perceptions that shape the concept of health in a society.Although some customs and beliefs tend to safeguard human communities from disease, others invite and provoke disease outbreaks. The beliefs that people have concerning health and disease can change the destiny of nations. The conquering of the Aztec empire may be one example. Historians have speculated how Hernando Cortez, starting off with fewer than 600 men, could conquer the Aztec empire, whose subjects numbered millions. Historian William H. McNeill suggests a sequence of events that may explain how a tiny handful of men could subjugate a nation of millions.Although the Aztecs ? rst thought the mounted, gunpowered Spaniards were gods, experience soon showed CHAPTER 1 Concepts of Health and Disease 5 otherwise. Armed clashes revealed the limitations of horse? esh and of primitive guns, and the Aztecs were able to drive Cortez and his men from their city. Unbeknownst to the Aztecs, the Spaniards had a more devastating weapon than any ? rearm: smallpox. An epidemic of smallpox broke out among the Aztecs after their skirmishes with the Spaniards.Because the population lacked inherited or acquired immunity, the results were catastrophic. It is presumed that a quarter to a third of the population died from the initial onslaught. Even more devastating were the psychological implications of the disease: it killed only American Indians and left Spaniards unharmed. A way of life built around the old Indian gods could not survive such a demonstration of the superior power of the God the Spaniards worshipped. It is not hard to imagine then that the Indians accepted Christianity and submitted meekly to Spanish control. Although we live in an age of science , science has not eliminated fantasies about health; the stigmas of sickness and the moral meanings that they carry continue. Whereas people in previous centuries wove stories around leprosy, plague, and tuberculosis to create fear and guilt, the modern age has created similar taboos and mythologies about cancer and acquired immunode? ciency syndrome (AIDS). The myth of tuberculosis (TB) was that a person who suffered from it was of a melancholy, superior character— sensitive, creative, a being apart.Melancholy, or sadness, made one â€Å"interesting† or romantic. The general perception of TB as â€Å"romantic† was not just a literary device. It was a way of thinking that insinuated itself into the sensibilities and made it possible to ignore the social conditions, such as overcrowding and poor sanitation and nutrition, that helped breed tuberculosis. The infusion of beliefs into public awareness often is surreptitious. Just as tuberculosis often had been regard ed sentimentally, as an enhancement of identity, cancer was regarded with irrational revulsion, as a diminution of the self. Current accounts of the psychological aspects of cancer often cite old authorities, starting with the Greek physician Galen, who observed that â€Å"melancholy women† are more likely to get breast cancer than â€Å"sanguine women. † Grief and anxiety were cited as causes of cancer, as well as personal losses. Public ? gures such as Napoleon, Ulysses S. Grant, Robert A. Taft, and Hubert Humphrey have all had their cancers diagnosed as the reaction to political defeat and the end to their political ambitions. Although distress can affect immunologic responsiveness, there is no scienti? evidence to support the view that speci? c emotions, or emotions in general, can produce speci? c diseases—or that cancer is the result of a â€Å"cancer personality,† described as emotionally withdrawn, lacking self-con? dence, and depressive. These di sease mythologies contribute to the stigmatizing of certain illnesses and, by extension, of those who are ill. The beliefs about health and disease have the power to trap or empower people. They may inhibit people from seeking early treatment, diminish personal responsibility for practicing healthful behaviors, or encourage fear and social isolation.Conversely, they also can be the impetus for compassion to those who are ill, for commitment to improving one’s own health, and for support of efforts to improve the health status of others. In summary, what constitutes health and disease changes over time. Prehistoric times were marked by beliefs that angry gods or evil spirits caused ill health and disease. To cure the sick, the gods had to be paci? ed or the evil spirits driven from the body. Tribal healers, or priests, emerged to accomplish this task. Prehistoric healers used a myriad of treatments, including magic charms, spells, and incantations; surgical treatment; and plan t medicines.Throughout history, the concept of health in a society has been shaped by its beliefs about life, death, and disease. Some beliefs and customs, such as exhibiting compassion for disabled community members, tend to safeguard human communities and increase the quality of life for all community members. Others invite and provoke disease outbreaks, such as myths about the causes of disease. Even though science and technology have advanced the understanding and treatment of disease, misconceptions and fantasies about disease still arise.In previous centuries, diseases such as leprosy, plague, and tuberculosis were fodder for taboos and mythologies; today, it is cancer and AIDS. The psychological effects of disease mythologies can be positive or negative. At their worst, they can stigmatize and isolate those who are ill; at their best, they can educate the community and improve the health of its members. Health and Disease: A Historical Perspective After completing this sectio n of the chapter, you should be able to meet the following objectives: Describe the contributions of the early Greek, Italian, and English scholars to the understanding of anatomy, physiology, and pathology ? State two important advances of the nineteenth century that helped to pave the way for prevention of disease ? State three signi? cant advances of the twentieth century that have revolutionized diagnosis and treatment of disease ? Propose developments that will both hamper and contribute to the promotion of health and the elimination of disease in the twenty-? rst century It has been said that those who do not know history are condemned to repeat it.There are many contributors to the understanding of how the body is constructed and how it works, and what disease is and how it can be treated, which in turn leads to an understanding of what health is and how can it be maintained. Much of what we take for granted in terms of treating the diseases that af? ict humankind has had its origin in the past. Although they are seemingly small contributions in terms of today’s scienti? c advances, it is the knowledge 6 UNIT I Concepts of Health and Disease produced by the great thinkers of the past that has made possible the many things we now take for granted.THE INFLUENCE OF EARLY SCHOLARS Knowledge of anatomy, physiology, and pathology as we now know it began to emerge with the ancient Greeks. They were the ? rst to recognize the distinction between internal and external causes of illness. To Hippocrates and his followers, we owe the foundations of the clinical principles and the ethics that grew into modern medical science. Hippocrates (460–377 BC) was a blend of scientist and artist. He believed that disease occurred when the four humors—blood from the heart, yellow bile from the liver, black bile from the spleen, and phlegm from the brain—became out of balance.These humors were said to govern character as well as health, producing phl egmatic, sanguine, choleric, and melancholic personalities. This belief paralleled the even older Chinese tradition, which was founded on the complementary principles of yin (female principle) and yang (male), whose correct proportions were essential for health. Hippocrates is identi? ed with an approach to health that dictated plenty of healthy exercise, rest in illness, and a moderate, sober diet. It was Aristotle (384–322 BC) who, through his dissection of small animals and description of their internal Hippocrates: A blend of scientist and scholar. Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine) anatomy, laid the foundations for the later scrutiny of the human body. For Aristotle, the heart was the most important organ. He believed it to be the center of the blood system as well as the center of the emotions. However, Aristotle’s main contributions were made to science in general. The person who took the next major step was Galen (AD 129–199), a physician to t he emperors and gladiators of ancient Rome. Galen expanded on the Hippocratic doctrines and introduced experimentation into the study of healing. His work came to be regarded as the encyclopedia of anatomy and physiology.He demoted the heart—in his view, the liver was primary for venous blood, whereas the seat of all thought was the brain. He described the arteries and veins and even revealed the working of the nervous system by severing a pig’s spinal cord at different points and demonstrating that corresponding parts of the body became paralyzed. According to Galen, the body carried three kinds of blood that contained spirits charged by various organs: the veins carried â€Å"natural spirit† from the liver; the arteries, â€Å"vital spirit† from the lungs; the nerves, â€Å"animal spirit† from the brain. The heart merely warmed the blood.After Galen’s death, however, anatomic research ceased, and his work was considered infallible for almo st 1400 years. As the great medical schools of universities reformed the teaching of anatomy in the early 1500s and integrated it into medical studies, it became apparent to anatomists that Galen’s data—taken from dogs, pigs, and apes—often were riddled with error. It was only with the work of Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) that Galen’s ideas truly were challenged. Vesalius, professor of anatomy and surgery at Padua, Italy, dedicated a lifetime to the study of the human body.Vesalius carried out some unprecedentedly scrupulous dissections and used the latest in artistic techniques and printing for the more than 200 woodcuts in his De Humani Corporis Fabrica (â€Å"On the Fabric [Structure] of the Human Body†). He showed not only what bodily parts looked like but also how they worked. The book, published in 1543, set a new standard for the understanding of human anatomy. With this work, Vesalius became a leading ? gure in the revolt against Gal en’s teachings. One of the most historically significant discoveries was made by William Harvey (1578–1657), an English physician and physiologist.He established that the blood circulates in a closed system impelled mechanically by a â€Å"pumplike† heart. He also measured the amount of blood in the circulatory system in any given unit of time—one of the ? rst applications of quantitative methods in biology. Harvey’s work, published in On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals (1628), provided a foundation of physiologic principles that led to an understanding of blood pressure and set the stage for innovative techniques such as cardiac catheterization. With the re? ement of the microscope by the Dutch lens maker Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), the stage was set for the era of cellular biology. Another early user of the microscope, English scientist Robert Hooke (1635–1703), published his Micrographia in 1665 in which CHAPTER 1 Concepts of Health and Disease 7 William Harvey’s most eminent patient, King Charles I, and the future King Charles II look on as Harvey displays a dissected deer heart. (Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine) he formally described the plant cells in cork and presented his theories of light and combustion and his studies of insect anatomy.His book presented the great potential of the microscope for biologic investigation. In it, he inaugurated the modern biologic usage of the word cell. A century later, German-born botanist Mathias Schleiden (1804–1881) and physiologist Theodor Schwann (1810–1882) observed that animal tissues also were composed of cells. Although Harvey contributed greatly to the understanding of anatomy and physiology, he was not interested in the chemistry of life. It was not until French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794), who was schooled as a lawyer but devoted to scienti? pursuits, overturned 100year-old theories of che mistry and established the basis of modern chemistry that new paths to examine body processes, such as metabolism, opened up. His restructured chemistry also gave scientists, including Louis Pasteur, the tools to develop organic chemistry. In 1796, Edward Jenner (1749–1823) conducted the ? rst vaccination by injecting the ? uid from a dairymaid’s cowpox lesion into a young boy’s arm. The vaccination by this English country doctor successfully protected the child from smallpox. Jenner’s discovery led to the development of vaccines to prevent many other diseases as well.Jenner’s classic experiment was the ? rst of? cially recorded vaccination. Painting by Georges-Gaston Melingue (1894). The ? rst vaccination. Here Dr. Jenner introduces cowpox taken from dairymaid Sarah Nelmes (right) and introduces it into two incisions on the arm of James Phipps, a healthy 8-year-old boy. The boy developed cowpox, but not smallpox, when Jenner introduced the organis m into his arm 48 days later. (Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine) THE NINETEENTH CENTURY The nineteenth century was a time of spectacular leaps forward in the understanding of infectious diseases.For many centuries, rival epidemiologic theories associated disease and epidemics like cholera with poisonous fumes given off from dung heaps and decaying matter (poisons in the air, exuded from rotting animal and vegetable material, the soil, and standing water) or with contagion (person-to-person contact). In 1865, English surgeon Joseph Lister (1827–1912) concluded that microbes caused wound infections. He began to use carbolic acid on wounds to kill microbes and reduce infection after surgery. However, Lister was not alone in identifying hazards in the immediate environment as detrimental to health.English nurse Florence Nightingale (1820–1910) was a leading proponent of sanitation and hygiene as weapons against disease. It was at the English base at Scutari dur ing the Crimean War (1854–1856) that Nightingale waged her battle. Arriving at the army hospital with a party of 38 nurses, Nightingale found nearly 2000 wounded and sick inhabiting foul, rat-infested wards. The war raged on, deluging the hospital with wounded as Nightingale not only organized the nursing care of the wounded but also provided meals, supplied bedding, and saw to the laundry.Within 6 months, she had brought about a transformation and slashed the death rate from approximately 40% to 2%. 3 8 UNIT I Concepts of Health and Disease Florence Nightingale caring for wounded at Scutari, Turkey, during the Crimean War. (Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine) From the 1860s, the rise of bacteriology, associated especially with chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur in France and bacteriologist Robert Koch in Germany, established the role of microorganismal pathogens. Almost for the ? rst time in medicine, bacteriology led directly to dramatic new cures.The techni que of pasteurization is named after Louis Pasteur (1822–1895). He introduced the method in 1865 to prevent the souring of wine. Pasteur’s studies of fermentation convinced him that it depended on the presence of microscopic forms of life, with each fermenting medium serving as a unique food for a speci? c microorganism. He developed techniques for culturing microbes in liquid broths. Through his work, he was able to dispel the disease theory that predominated in the mid-nineteenth century, attributing fevers to â€Å"miasmas,† or fumes, and laid the foundation for the germ theory of disease.The anthrax bacillus, discovered by Robert Koch (1843–1910), was the ? rst microorganism identi? ed as a cause of illness. Koch’s trailblazing work also included identifying the organism responsible for tuberculosis and the discovery of a tuberculosis skin-testing material. In 1895, German physicist Wilhelm Rontgen (1845– 1923) discovered X rays. For the ? rst time without a catastrophic event, the most hidden parts of a human body were revealed. Even though he understood that it was a signi? cant discovery, Rontgen did not initially recognize the amazing diagnostic potential of the process he had discovered.THE TWENTIETH CENTURY The twentieth century was a period of revolutionary industry in the science and politics of health. Concerns about the care of infants and children and the spread of infectious disease became prevailing themes in public and political arenas alike. It was during this time that private duty and public health nursing emerged as the means of delivering health care to people in their homes and in their communities. Social service agencies like the Henry Street Settlement in New York, founded by Lillian Wald, sent nurses into tenements to care for the sick. The placement of nurses in schools began in New York City in 1902 at the urging of Wald, who offered to supply a Henry Street nurse for 1 month without charg e. 5 Efforts to broaden the delivery of health care from the city to rural areas also were initiated during the early 1900s. The American Red Cross, which was reorganized and granted a new charter by Congress in 1905, established a nursing service for the rural poor that eventually expanded to serve the small town poor as well. 5 Scienti? c discoveries and innovations abounded in the twentieth century.In the early 1900s, German bacteriologist Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915) theorized that certain substances could act as â€Å"magic bullets,† attacking disease-causing microbes but leaving the rest of the body undamaged. In 1910, he introduced his discovery: using the arsenic compound Salvarsan, he had found an effective weapon against syphilis. Through his work, Ehrlich launched the science of chemotherapy. CHAPTER 1 Concepts of Health and Disease 9 The operating room. With the advent of anesthesia, knowledge of how microbes cause disease, and availability of incandescent ligh ting in the operating room, surgery became an option for treating disease.Rubber gloves had not yet been invented and the surgical team worked with bare hands to perform surgery. (Hahnemann Hospital, Chicago, IL. Courtesy Bette Clemons, Phoenix, AZ) The ? rst antibiotic was discovered in 1928 by English bacteriologist Sir Alexander Fleming (1881–1955). As he studied the relationship between bacteria and the mold Penicillium, he discovered its ability to kill staphylococci. However, it was not until the 1940s that later researchers, who were searching for substances produced by one microorganism that might kill other microorganisms, produced penicillin as a clinically useful antibiotic.By the 1930s, innovative researchers had produced a cornucopia of new drugs that could be used to treat many of the most common illnesses that left their victims either severely disabled or dead. The medical community now had at its disposal medications such as digoxin to treat heart failure; su lfa drugs, which produced near-miraculous cures for infections such as scarlet fever; and insulin to treat diabetes. At the turn of the century, social service agencies like Henry Street Settlement in New York sent nurses into tenements to care for the sick. (Schorr T. M. , Kennedy S.M. [1999]. 100 years of American nursing [p. 12]. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins) 10 UNIT I Concepts of Health and Disease With the discovery of insulin, a once-fatal disease known from antiquity no longer carried a death sentence. Working together, Canadian physician Sir Frederick Banting (1891–1941) and physiologist Charles Best (1899–1978) isolated insulin from the pancreas of a dog in 1921. The extract, when given to diabetic dogs, restored their health. In January 1922, they successfully treated a young boy dying of diabetes with their pancreatic extracts.Although still incurable, it became possible to live with diabetes. One disease that remained not only incurable but u ntreatable through much of the twentieth century was tuberculosis. With no cure or preventive vaccine forthcoming, efforts at the turn of the century were dedicated to controlling the spread of tuberculosis. It was then that an alliance between organized medicine and the public resulted in the formation of voluntary local organizations to battle the disease. These organizations focused on education to counteract the fear of tuberculosis; at the same time, they warned against the disease.In 1904, the local organizations joined together to form a national organization, the National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis. In 1918, the name was changed to the National Tuberculosis Association, which was renamed the American Lung Association in 1973. 6 The national and local tuberculosis associations played a vital role in educating the public by running campaigns urging people to have skin tests and chest x-rays as a means of diagnosing tuberculosis. Once tuberculosis was diagnosed, an individual was likely to be sent to a sanatorium or tuberculosis hospital.There, good nourishment, fresh air, and bed rest were prescribed in the belief that if the body’s natural defenses were strengthened, they would be able to overcome the tuberculosis bacillus. For almost half a century, this would be the prevailing treatment. It was not until 1945, with the introduction of chemotherapy, that streptomycin was used to treat tuberculosis. Outbreaks of poliomyelitis, which had increased in the early decades of the 1900s, served as the impetus for the work of American microbiologist Jonas Salk (1914–1995).At its peak, the virus was claiming 50,000 victims annually in the United States. 3 Test trials of Salk’s vaccine with inactivated virus began in 1953, and it proved to prevent the development of polio. By 1955, the massive testing was complete, and the vaccine was quickly put into wide use. Surgical techniques also flourished during this time . A single technical innovation was responsible for opening up the last surgical frontier—the heart. Up to this time, the heart had been out of bounds; surgeons did not have the means to take over the function of the heart for long enough to get inside and operate. American surgeon John Gibbon (1903–1973) addressed this problem when he developed the heart-lung machine. Dramatic advances followed its successful use in 1953—probably none more so than the ? rst successful heart transplantation performed in 1967 by South African surgeon Christiaan Barnard (1922–2001). For centuries, the inheritance of traits had been explained in religious or philosophical terms. Although English naturalist Charles Darwin’s (1809–1882) work dispelled long-held beliefs about inherited traits, it was Austrian bo-A tuberculosis skin testing clinic. (Schorr T. M. , Kennedy S. M. [1999]. 100 years of American nursing [p. 49]. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilki ns) CHAPTER 1 Concepts of Health and Disease 11 The â€Å"iron lung,† which used negative pressure to draw air into the lungs, was used to provide ventilatory support for persons with â€Å"bulbar polio. † (Schorr T. M. , Kennedy S. M. [1999]. 100 years of American nursing [p. 91]. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins) anist Gregor Mendel’s (1822–1884) revolutionary theories on the segregation of traits, largely ignored until 1902, that laid the groundwork for establishing the chromosome as the structural unit of heredity. Many other scientists and researchers contributed to the storehouse of genetic knowledge. With the work by American geneticist James Watson (1928–) and British biophysicists Francis Crick (1916–) and Maurice Wilkins (1916–) in the early 1950s, which established the double-helical structure of DNA, the way to investigating and understanding our genetic heritage was opened.It is dif? cult, if not impossible, to single out all the landmark events of the twentieth century that contributed to the health of humankind. Among the other notable achievements are the development of kidney dialysis, oral contraceptives, transplant surgery, the computed axial tomography (CAT) scanner, and coronary angioplasty. Not all of the important advances in modern medicine are as dramatic as open-heart surgery. Often, they are the result of dogged work by many people and yield results only after a number of years, and then they frequently go unheralded.For example, vaccination programs, control of infectious diseases through improvements in sanitation of water and waste disposal, safer and healthier foods free from microbial contamination, identi? cation of health risks from behaviors such as smoking, and improved prenatal care all have saved many lives in the twentieth century. THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY The twenty-? rst century reveals new horizons, but also new problems. In greater numbers than ever, goods an d people travel the world. There is unprecedented physical mobility—travel and migration from villages to cities and country to country—and interconnectedness.However, the bene? ts of physical mobility and interconnectedness are accompanied by risks. Diseases such as AIDS remind us that nothing is regional, local, or limited in its reach: contagious illness has a worldwide arena. The challenges of maintaining health and well-being in this global community are increasingly apparent. The inadvertent introduction of pathogens poses an unrelenting threat to public health, as does the deliberate use of microorganisms as weapons (see Chapter 18 for a discussion of bioterrorism and emerging global infectious diseases).In February 2003, the viral respiratory illness named severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) by the World Health Organization was ? rst recognized in China. 8 In the next few months, the illness swept through parts of Asia and spread to more than two dozen cou ntries in North America, South America, and Europe. The disease was characterized by rapid onset and variable severity, ranging from mild illness to death. The prevention of SARS was a particular challenge because preventive interventions (e. g. , vaccines and antibiotics) were unavailable.Containment became a global collaboration, with public health authorities utilizing isolation and quarantine to focus delivery of health care to people who were ill and to protect healthy people from getting sick. During the February to July outbreak, more than 8000 people worldwide became infected, and more than 900 died. Commerce also is an integral part of the growing world community, bringing goods and services once unobtainable into the global marketplace. Expanded international trade also provides the vehicle for the unwitting introduction or transmission of disease. One such instance occurred in the spring of 2003 in the United States. A multistate outbreak of human monkeypox, ? rst identi? ed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 1970, was traced by investigators to pet prairie dogs. The prairie dogs became infected when they were housed or transported along with infected Gambian giant rats, dormice, and rope squirrels that were part of a shipment of small mammals from Ghana. Spread of nonindigenous zoonotic pathogens to indigenous susceptible animal populations can be rapid and deadly. With such outbreaks lurks an additional danger—the potential for interspecies exchange, including between humans and animals such as pets.The widespread distribution of infected and potentially infected animals allowed epizootic spread of monkeypox through several states before effective interventions could be put into place. One of the challenges to the world health community will be to study the role of international travel and commerce in the emergence of infectious diseases through the dissemination of pathogens and their vectors throughout the world and then to develo p long-term strategies of surveillance and intervention with the ultimate goal of curtailing their occurrence.In 1976, the World Health Organization (WHO) actually succeeded in eliminating smallpox from the face of the earth. 10 This triumph gave substance to the idea that other infections, like measles, also might disappear if suf? cient efforts were directed at worldwide campaigns to isolate and cure them. However, new infectious diseases, such as Lyme disease and Legionnaire’s disease, and new forms of old diseases, such as resistant strains of tuberculosis and malaria, have emerged and are readily spread 12 UNIT I Concepts of Health and Disease ing on Hippocratic doctrines and introducing experimentation into the study of healing.His work, gleaned through his role as physician to the emperors and gladiators of Rome and animal dissections, came to be regarded as the encyclopedia of anatomy and physiology and was considered infallible for almost 1400 years. Signi? cant chal lenges to long-held beliefs began with the work of Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), professor of anatomy and surgery at Padua, Italy. His published work, On the Fabric [Structure] of the Human Body, showing how the parts of the body looked and worked, set a new standard for the understanding of human anatomy.Other significant early contributions were made by scholars such as William Harvey (1578–1657), the English physician and physiologist, who in his book, On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, provided a physiologic framework for the circulation of blood; Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723), the Dutch lens maker who refined the microscope and set the stage for the era of cellular biology; and Edward Jenner (1749–1823), the English country physician who conducted the first successful vaccination. The nineteenth century was a time of major discoveries that paved the way for understanding infectious diseases.Signi? cant contributions were made by suc h scientists as Joseph Lister, the English surgeon who concluded that microbes caused wound infections; German bacteriologist Robert Koch, who discovered the anthrax bacillus, thus identifying for the ? rst time a microorganism and the illness it caused; and French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur, who developed the technique of pasteurization. Perhaps the most notable technical innovation of the century was the discovery of X rays by German physicist Wilhelm Rontgen. The scienti? undertakings and discoveries of the twentieth century were revolutionary. In 1910, Paul Ehrlich introduced chemotherapy, and in 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming discovered the ? rst antibiotic as he studied the relationship between bacteria and the mold Penicillium. Diseases that had once been fatal or crippling were managed or prevented by new advances, such as the discovery of insulin by Sir Frederick Banting and Charles Best in 1922 and the development of the polio vaccine by Jonas Salk in 1953. Tech nical innovations set the stage for new surgical techniques.The creation of the heartlung machine by American surgeon John Gibbon paved the way for coronary bypass surgery and the ? rst successful heart transplantation in 1967, which was performed by Christiaan Barnard, a South African surgeon. Other important advances included kidney dialysis, oral contraceptives, the CAT scanner, and coronary angioplasty. Public health programs also were responsible for greatly affecting the health of populations, such as those dedicated to increasing vaccination, improving sanitation of water and waste disposal, and identifying health risks.Knowledge about the in? uence of heredity on health and disease originated with Charles Darwin’s (1809–1882) evolutionary theories about inherited traits and with Gregor Mendel’s (1822–1884) theories on the segregation of traits, which laid the groundwork for establishing the chromosome as the structural unit of heredity. In the ear ly 1950s, geneticist James Watson of the United States and British biophysicists Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins presented their ? ndings on the double-helical structure of DNA. worldwide.The powerful interventions used to ? ght these infections have had the unexpected effect of accelerating their biologic evolution and making them impervious to one after another form of chemical attack. Pathogens also can be introduced into the food chain and travel worldwide. The discovery that beef from cattle infected with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) may be the source of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease led many countries to ban beef products from the United Kingdom when BSE was found to be prevalent in English herds.The introduction of such pathogens can be the result of ignorance, carelessness, or greed. Tobacco is a product that serves as a pathogen. In a quest for ever-increasing pro? ts, the tobacco industry created a demand for its product by arti? cially raising the nicotine content of cigarettes so as to increase their addictive potential. This was done with the knowledge of the health risks of tobacco products, thanks to experiments conducted by the tobacco companies’ own medical scientists, but kept secret.If there is a blueprint for future advances, it is in the genes. The twenty-? rst century is destined to be dominated by advances in genetics. With the mapping of the human genome comes hope of cure for some of the most dreaded crippling and fatal diseases. The mapping of the human genome also has posed new ethical dilemmas, for with it comes the potential to predict the future health of persons based on their genes. It soon may be possible to differentiate between persons who will develop certain debilitating diseases and those who will not.Although advances in science and technology will continue to provide new treatments for many diseases, it has become apparent that there are more impressive rewards to be had by preventing diseases from becomin g established in the ? rst place. Ultimately, maintaining health is more resource conservative and cost effective than relying on the treatment of disease. Many decades ago, we learned that even though the â€Å"magic bullets† such as antibiotics had the ability to cure what was once considered incurable, much of our freedom from communicable disease is due to clean water, ef? ient sanitation, and good nutrition. We have become increasingly aware of the importance of preventive measures against noninfectious conditions, especially cancer and coronary heart disease. There is no better way to prevent disease and maintain health than by leading a healthy life, and increasingly, it will be the individual who is responsible for ensuring a healthy passage through life. In summary, Greek scholars were responsible for establishing the fundamentals of anatomy, physiology, and pathology that served as the earliest knowledge base for understanding health and disease.It was Hippocrates ( 460–377 BC) and his followers who laid the foundations of the clinical principles and ethics that grew into modern science. Although his belief that disease occurred when the four humors—blood, yellow and black bile, and phlegm—became out of balance was disproved, his approach to health that dictated plenty of healthy exercise, rest in illness, and a moderate, sober diet remains valid. Galen (AD 129–199) took the next major step, expand- CHAPTER 1 The twenty-? rst century is predicted to be a time of great advances in the ? ld of genetics, already evidenced by the substantial mapping of the human genome that has taken place. Scientists look to genetic research to provide advances that not only will predict who may develop disease but also will provide new treatments for those diseases. However promising future advances may appear, it is readily apparent that prevention is an equally important tool in maintaining health. Concepts of Health and Disease 13 P erspectives on Health and Disease in IndividualsAfter completing this section of the chapter, you should be able to meet the following objectives: ? State the World Health Organization de? nition of health ? Describe the function of adaptation as it relates to health and disease ? State a de? nition of pathophysiology ? Characterize the disease process in terms of etiology, pathogenesis, morphology, clinical manifestations, and prognosis ? Explain the meanings of reliability, validity, sensitivity, speci? city, and predictive value as they relate to observations and tests used in the diagnosis of diseaseWhat constitutes health and disease often is dif? cult to determine because of the way different people view the topic. What is de? ned as health is determined by many factors, including heredity, age and sex, cultural and ethnic differences, as well as individual, group, and governmental expectations. HEALTH The World Health Organization (WHO) in 1948 de? ned health as a â€Å"stat e of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and in? rmity. †10 Although ideal for many people, this was an unrealistic goal.At the World Health Assembly in 1977, representatives of the member governments of WHO agreed that their goal was to have all citizens of the world reach a level of health by the year 2000 that allows them to live a socially and economically productive life. 10 The U. S. Department of Health and Human Services in Healthy People 2010 described the determinants of health as an interaction between an individual’s biology and behavior, physical and social environments, government policies and interventions, and access to quality health care. 1 with which the need to adapt occurs (see Chapter 9). Generally speaking, adaptation affects the whole person. When adapting to stresses that are threats to health, the body uses those behaviors that are the most ef? cient and effective. It does not use long-term mec hanisms when short-term adaptation is suf? cient. The increase in heart rate that accompanies a febrile illness is a temporary response designed to deliver additional oxygen to tissues during the short period that the elevated temperature increases metabolic needs.On the other hand, hypertrophy of the left ventricle is a long-term adaptive response that occurs in persons with chronic hypertension. Adaptation is further affected by the availability of adaptive responses and the ability of the body to select the most appropriate response. The ability to adapt is dependent on the availability of adaptive responses—the greater number of available responses, the more effective the capacity to adapt. Adaptive capacity is decreased with extremes of age and with disease conditions that limit the availability of adaptive responses.The immaturity of the infant impairs the ability to adapt, as does the decline in functional reserve that occurs in the elderly. For example, infants have d if? culty concentrating urine because of the immaturity of their renal tubular structures and therefore are less able than an older child or adult to cope with decreased water intake or exaggerated water losses. Similarly, persons with preexisting heart disease are less able to adapt to health problems that require recruitment of cardiovascular responses. Adaptation also is less effective when changes in health status occur suddenly rather than gradually.For instance, it is possible to lose a liter of blood through chronic gastrointestinal bleeding without developing signs of shock. On the other hand, a sudden hemorrhage that causes the loss of an equal amount of blood is apt to produce hypotension and circulatory shock. Even in advanced disease states, the body retains much of its adaptive capacity and is able to maintain the internal environment within relatively normal limits. DISEASE The term pathophysiology, which is the focus of this book, may be de? ned as the physiology of a ltered health. The term combines the words pathology and physiology.Pathology (from the Greek pathos, meaning â€Å"disease†) deals with the study of the structural and functional changes in cells, tissues, and organs of the body that cause or are caused by disease. Physiology deals with the functions of the human body. Thus, pathophysiology deals not only with the cellular and organ changes that occur with disease but also with the effects that these changes have on total body function. Pathophysiology also focuses on the mechanisms of the underlying disease and provides the background for preventive as well as therapeutic health care measures and practices.A disease has been de? ned as any deviation from or interruption of the normal structure or function of a part, organ, or system of the body that is manifested by a characteristic set of symptoms or signs; the etiology, pathology, and prognosis may be known or unknown. 12 The aspects HEALTH AND DISEASE AS STATES OF ADAPTA TION The ability of the body to adapt both physically and psychologically to the many stresses that occur in both health and disease is affected by a number of factors, including age, health status, psychosocial resources, and the rapidity 14 UNIT I Concepts of Health and Disease f the disease process include the etiology, pathogenesis, morphologic changes, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and clinical course. ity, the progression from fatty streak to the occlusive vessel lesion seen in persons with coronary heart disease represents the pathogenesis of the disorder. The true etiology of atherosclerosis remains largely uncertain. Etiology The causes of disease are known as etiologic factors. Among the recognized etiologic agents are biologic agents (e. g. , bacteria, viruses), physical forces (e. g. , trauma, burns, radiation), chemical agents (e. g. , poisons, alcohol), and nutritional excesses or de? its. At the molecular level, it is important to distinguish between sick molecu les and molecules that cause disease. 13 This is true of diseases such as cystic ? brosis, sickle cell anemia, and familial hypercholesterolemia, in which genetic abnormality of a single amino acid, transporter molecule, or receptor protein produces widespread effects on health. Most disease-causing agents are nonspeci? c, and many different agents can cause disease of a single organ. For example, lung disease can result from trauma, infection, exposure to physical and chemical agents, or neoplasia.With severe lung involvement, each of these agents has the potential to cause respiratory failure. On the other hand, a single agent or traumatic event can lead to disease of a number of organs or systems. For example, severe circulatory shock can cause multiorgan failure. Although a disease agent can affect more than a single organ, and a number of disease agents can affect the same organ, most disease states do not have a single cause. Instead, most diseases are multifactorial in origin . This is particularly true of diseases such as cancer, heart disease, and diabetes.The multiple factors that predispose to a particular disease often are referred to as risk factors. One way to view the factors that cause disease is to group them into categories according to whether they were present at birth or acquired later in life. Congenital conditions are defects that are present at birth, although they may not be evident until later in life. Congenital malformation may be caused by genetic in? uences, environmental factors (e. g. , viral infections in the mother, maternal drug use, irradiation, or intrauterine crowding), or a combination of genetic and environmental factors.Not all genetic disorders are evident at birth. Many genetic disorders, such as familial hypercholesterolemia and polycystic kidney disease, take years to develop. Acquired defects are those that are caused by events that occur after birth. These include injury, exposure to infectious agents, inadequate n utrition, lack of oxygen, inappropriate immune responses, and neoplasia. Many diseases are thought to be the result of a genetic predisposition and an environmental event or events that serve as a trigger to initiate disease development. MorphologyMorphology refers to the fundamental structure or form of cells or tissues. Morphologic changes are concerned with both the gross anatomic and microscopic changes that are characteristic of a disease. Histology deals with the study of the cells and extracellular matrix of body tissues. The most common method used in the study of tissues is the preparation of histologic sections that can be studied with the aid of a microscope. Because tissues and organs usually are too thick to be examined under a microscope, they must be sectioned to obtain thin, translucent sections.Histologic sections play an important role in the diagnosis of many types of cancer. A lesion represents a pathologic or traumatic discontinuity of a body organ or tissue. De scriptions of lesion size and characteristics often can be obtained through the use of radiographs, ultrasonography, and other imaging methods. Lesions also may be sampled by biopsy and the tissue samples subjected to histologic study. Clinical Manifestations Disease can be manifest in a number of ways. Sometimes, the condition produces manifestations, such as fever, that make it evident that the person is sick.Other diseases are silent at the onset and are detected during examination for other purposes or after the disease is far advanced. Signs and symptoms are terms used to describe the structural and functional changes that accompany a disease. A symptom is a subjective complaint that is noted by the person with a disorder, whereas a sign is a manifestation that is noted by an observer. Pain, dif? culty in breathing, and dizziness are symptoms of a disease. An elevated temperature, a swollen extremity, and changes in pupil size are objective signs that can be observed by someone other than the person with the disease.Signs and symptoms may be related to the primary disorder, or they may represent the body’s attempt to compensate for the altered function caused by the pathologic condition. Many pathologic states are not observed directly—one cannot see a sick heart or a failing kidney. Instead, what can be observed is the body’s attempt to compensate for changes in function brought about by the disease, such as the tachycardia that accompanies blood loss or the increased respiratory rate that occurs with pneumonia. It is important to recognize that a single sign or symptom may be associated with a number of different disease states.For example, an elevated temperature can indicate the presence of an infection, heat stroke, brain tumor, or any number of other disorders. A differential diagnosis that describes the origin of a disorder usually requires information regarding a number of signs and symptoms. For example, the presence of fever , a reddened sore throat, and positive throat culture describe a â€Å"strep throat† infection. A syndrome is a compilation of signs and symptoms (e. g. , chronic fatigue syndrome) that are characteristic of a speci? c disease state. Complications are possible adverse ex-Pathogenesis Pathogenesis is the sequence of cellular and tissue events that take place from the time of initial contact with an etiologic agent until the ultimate expression of a disease. Etiology describes what sets the disease process in motion, and pathogenesis, how the disease process evolves. Although the two terms often are used interchangeably, their meanings are quite different. For example, atherosclerosis often is cited as the cause or etiology of coronary heart disease. In real- CHAPTER 1 Concepts of Health and Disease 15 ensions of a disease or outcomes from treatment. Sequelae are lesions or impairments that follow or are caused by a disease. Diagnosis A diagnosis is the designation as to the na ture or cause of a health problem (e. g. , bacterial pneumonia or hemorrhagic stroke). The diagnostic process usually requires a careful history and physical examination. The history is used to obtain a person’s account of his or her symptoms, their progression, and the factors that contribute to a diagnosis. The physical examination is done to observe for signs of altered body structure or function.The development of a diagnosis involves weighing competing possibilities and selecting the most likely one from among the conditions that might be responsible for the person’s clinical presentation. The clinical probability of a given disease in a person of a given age, sex, race, lifestyle, and locality often is in? uential in arriving at a presumptive diagnosis. Laboratory tests, radiologic studies, CT scans, and other tests often are used to con? rm a diagnosis. Normality. An important factor when interpreting diagnostic test results is the determination of whether they are normal or abnormal.Is a blood count above normal, within the normal range, or below normal? Normality usually determines whether further tests are needed or if interventions are necessary. What is termed a normal value for a laboratory test is established statistically from test results obtained from a selected sample of people. The normal values refer to the 95% distribution (mean plus or minus two standard deviations [mean  ± 2 SD]) of test results for the reference population. 14 Thus, the normal levels for serum sodium (135 to 145 mEq/L) represent the mean serum level for the reference population  ± 2 SD.The normal values for some laboratory tests are adjusted for sex or age. For example, the normal hemoglobin range for women is 12. 0 to 16. 0 g/dL and for men, 14. 0 to 17. 4 g/dL. 15 Serum creatinine level often is adjusted for age in the elderly (see Chapter 36), and normal values for serum phosphate differ between adults and children. Reliability, Validity, Sensitivit y, Speci? city, and Predictive Value. The quality of data on which a diagnosis is based may be judged for its reliability, validity, sensitivity, speci? city, and predictive value. 6,17 Reliability refers to the extent to which an observation, if repeated, gives the same result. A poorly calibrated blood pressure machine may give inconsistent measurements of blood pressure, particularly of pressures in either the high or low range. Reliability also depends on the persons making the measurements. For example, blood pressure measurements may vary from one observer to another because of the technique that is used (e. g. , different observers may de? ate the cuff at a different rate, thus obtaining different values), the way the numbers on the manometer are read, or differences in hearing acuity.Validity refers to the extent to which a measurement tool measures what it is intended to measure. This often is assessed by comparing a measurement method with the best possible method of measu re that is available. For example, the validity of blood pressure measurements ob- tained by a sphygmomanometer might be compared with those obtained by intraarterial measurements. Measures of sensitivity and speci? city are concerned with determining how well the test or observation identi? es people with the disease and people without the disease.Sensitivity refers to the proportion of people with a disease who are positive for that disease on a given test or observation (called a true-positive result). Speci? city refers to the proportion of people without the disease who are negative on a given test or observation (called a true-negative result). A test that is 95% speci? c correctly identi? es 95 of 100 normal people. The other 5% are false-positive results. A false-positive test result, particularly for conditions such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, can be unduly stressful for the person being tested (see Chapter 22).In the case of HIV testing, a positive res ult on the initial antibody test is followed up with a more sensitive test. On the other hand, false-negative test results in conditions such as cancer can delay diagnosis and jeopardize the outcome of treatment. Predictive value is the extent to which an observation or test result is able to predict the presence of a given disease or condition. A positive predictive value refers to the proportion of true-positive results that occurs in a given population.In a group of women found to have â€Å"suspect breast nodules† in a cancer-screening program, the proportion later determined to have breast cancer would constitute the positive predictive value. A negative predictive value refers to the true-negative observations in a population. In a screening test for breast cancer, the negative predictive value represents the proportion of women without suspect nodules who do not have breast cancer. Although predictive values rely in part on sensitivity and speci? city, they depend more heavily on the prevalence of the condition in the population. Despite unchanging sensitivity and speci? ity, the positive predictive value of an observation rises with prevalence, whereas the negative predictive value falls. Clinical Course The clinical course describes the evolution of a disease. A disease can have an acute, subacute, or chronic course. An acute disorder is one that is relatively severe, but selflimiting. Chronic disease implies a continuous, long-term process. A chronic disease can run a continuous course, or it can present with exacerbations (aggravation of symptoms and severity of the disease) and remissions (a period during which there is a lessening of severity and a decrease in symptoms).Subacute disease is intermediate or between acute and chronic: it is not as severe as an acute disease and not as prolonged as a chronic disease. The spectrum of disease severity for infectious diseases such as hepatitis B can range from preclinical to persistent chronic inf ection. During the preclinical stage, the disease is not clinically evident but is destined to progress to clinical disease. As with hepatitis B, it is possible to